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LIPPIMCOTT 
FARM MANUALS 






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PRODUCTIVE 
FEEDING OF 
FARM ANIMALS 

BYF.W WOLLPh.D. 




Class 'j^^S 
Bnnk tU 5 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



" The first farmer was the first man, and all historic 
nobility rests on possession and use of land." 

— Emerson. 



LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM MANUALS 

EDITED BY 
KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE 
GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING 

OF 

FARM ANIMALS 

By F. W. WOLL, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL NUTRITION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF 

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, AND CHEMIST TO WISCONSIN 

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION; EX-PRESIDENT OF ASSOCIATION OF 

OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS OF NORTH AMERICA 



LIPPINCOTT'S 
FARM MANUALS 

Edited by K. C DAVIS, Ph.D. 



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SWINE HUSBANDRY 

By G. E. DAY, B.S.A. 

Ontario Agricultural College 

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(2nd Edition) 
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By C. W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A. 

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By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. 

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Lippincott's Farm Manuals 

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell) 

PRODUCTIVE FEEDING 

OF 

FARM ANIMALS 



&& 



BY 

WOLL, Ph.D. 



PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL NUTRITION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF 

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, AND CHEMIST TO WISCONSIN 

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION; EX-PRESIDENT OF ASSOCIATION OF 

OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS OF NORTH AMERICA 



96 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 



" If vain our toil, 
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil." 

Pope — Essay on Man 




PHILADELPHIA & LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 






BY J. B 



COPYRIGHT, I9IS, 

UPPINCOTT COMPANY 



Electrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. 

FEB 27 1915 
©CI.A391902 



PREFACE 

The general interest in matters pertaining to the farm and farm 
life that has been evidenced, in recent years is one of the wholesome 
signs of the times. Farm animals have shared in this increasing 
interest, and the love of fine stock, as well as the desire to surround 
the animals with conditions that will secure the best results for the 
care and labor bestowed upon them, has been a potent factor in the 
development of animal industry in this country during the last 
generation. For permanent and fruitful advance in agricultural 
matters, it is agreed that the boy must be interested; must learn 
about the realities and problems of farm life; must be taught how 
to meet these and how to adjust himself to changes in new conditions 
of farming that may arise. Hence we find that courses in agricul- 
ture are being introduced into more and more schools; the agricul- 
tural college no longer has a monopoly of teaching animal husbandry, 
field crops, horticulture, etc. County agricultural schools and agri- 
cultural high schools, as well as graded schools in a number of 
States, are giving their pupils an opportunity to study the under- 
lying principles of farm operations. 

Until recently there were no text-books that met the needs of 
these different classes of students. This want is now, however, 
gradually being filled, and in some cases there is already a choice 
of carefully-prepared books, well adapted for the purpose intended. 
This volume has been prepared with a view to furnishing students in 
agricultural schools and colleges, as well as practical farmers, with a 
concise discussion of the main principles relating to the feeding of 
farm animals and of the various feeding stuffs available to our 
stockmen. So far as possible, different feeding practices for the 
various classes of farm animals have also been given and discussed, 
pointing the way to profitable methods of stock feeding under the 
variety of conditions existing on American farms. 

The treatment of this subject in text-book form presents pecu- 
liar difficulties. In view of the immense amount of research work 
that has accumulated and is being conducted and published even- 
year, at public expense and otherwise, it would be easy to present 
a bewildering mass of detailed experimental evidence as to the merits 
of different feeds and methods of feeding. This would not, how- 
ever, serve the purpose of either teacher or student. It has been the 

v 



vi PREFACE 

aim of the author to give a well-digested, systematic treatment of 
the subject. It is hoped that the presentation will commend itself 
to the judgment of educators and farmers, and that a study of this 
book will aid them to a clear understanding of the principles of 
productive feeding of farm animals. 

Acknowledgment for loan of photographs or cuts is due to the 
Directors of the Agricultural Experiment Stations at Berkeley, Cal. ; 
Ottawa, Canada ; Ithaca, N. Y. ; State College, Pa. ; Burlington, Yt. ; 
Madison, Wis., and U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry; Professors 
K. C. Davis, S. B. Doten, David Griffiths, I. D. Iddings, Frank L. 
Peterson, E. A. Trowbridge, and Gordon H. True ; American Guern- 
sey Cattle Club; W. J. Gillett, Rosendale, Wis. ; A. W. Morris & Sons 
Corp., Woodland, Cal.; Publishers Breeders' Gazette, Chicago, and 
Pacific Rural Press, San Francisco, Cal., and Hog Motor Company, 
Minneapolis. 

F. W. Woll. 
Davis, Cal., January, 1915. 



CONTENTS 



Introduction . 



PACE 

1 



PART I.— PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

CHAPTER 

I. The Composition of Feeding Stuffs 5 

II. The Composition of Animals 19 

III. The Digestion of Feeds 26 

IV. Uses of Feed by Animals 34 

V. Determination of the Nutritive Value of Feeding Stuffs 40 

VI. Variations in the Chemical Composition of Feeding Stuffs 53 

VII. Conditions Affecting the Digestibility of Feeding Stuffs 63 

VIII. Calculation of Rations 71 

IX. The Feed-unit System 79 

X. Relative Value of Feeding Stuffs 82 

XI. Manurial Values of Feeding Stuffs 86 



XII. 



XIII. 



XIV. 
XV. 



XVI. 



XVII. 



XVIII. 



XIX. 



XX. 



PART II.— DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 
A. Coarse Feeds 

Green Forage and Hay Crops 90 

I. Pastures 90 

II. Soiling Crops 95 

III. Hay Crops 98 

Green Forage and Hay Crops — Continued 105 

I. Annual Forage Crops 105 

II. Hay from Leguminous Crops 113 

III. Straw of Cereals and Legumes 128 

Roots, Tubers, and Other Succulent Feeds 131 

Silos and Silage 149 

B. Description of Concentrates 

The Concentrates 163 

I. Cereal Grains 163 

II. Leguminous and Oil-bearing Seeds 175 

Various Factory By-products 179 

I. Flour and Cereal Mill Feeds 179 

II. Brewery and Distillery Feeds 188 

III. Starch and Glucose Factory Feeds 190 

Sugar Factory Feeds and Oil Meals 192 

I. Sugar Factory Feeds 192 

II. Oil Meals .195 

Animal P'eeds 204 

I. Packing-house Feeds 204 

II. Dairy Feeds 205 

Miscellaneous Feeds 210 

I. Proprietary Feeds 210 

II. Feeds of Minor Importance 210 

III. Condimental Stock Feeds 212 

vii 



Vlll 



CONTENTS 



PART III— PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

XXI. Calf Feeding 215 

XXII. Feeding Dairy Cattle 227 

XXIII. Feeding Beef Cattle 253 

XXIV. Feeding Horses and Mules 277 

XXV. Feeding Swine 294 

XXVI. Feeding Sheep and Goats 317 

APPENDIX 

TABLE 

I. Composition of Feeding Stuffs 337 

II. Ready Reference Tables for Calculation of Rations.. 344 

III. Production Values of Feeding Stuffs 349 

IV. Table of Feed Units 350 

V. Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 351 

VI. Weights of Concentrated Feeds 353 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. PAGE 

Composition of Feeding Stuffs (Colored Chart) Frontispiece 

1. Water in Common Feeding Stuffs, in Per Cent 7 

2. Mineral Matter in a Ton of Common Feeds, in Pounds 8 

3. Fats in Common Feeding Stuffs, in Per Cent 12 

4. Fiber in Plant Materials, in Per Cent 15 

5. View of a Chemical Laboratory for Analysis of Feeding Stuffs and 

Other Agricultural Products 17 

6. Composition of Live Animals Less Contents of Stomach and Intes- 

tines, in Per Cent 20 

7. The Digestive Apparatus of Ruminants 27 

8. Digestible Components and Nutritive Ratios of Common Feeds, in 

Per Cent 42 

9. A View of the Respiration Calorimeter at the Pennsylvania Experi- 

ment Station 46 

10. Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 89 

11. Shade Trees and a Running Stream in the Pasture Make for the 

Health and Comfort of Farm Animals 92 

12. Indian Corn Grown for the Silo or for Soiling 95 

13. The Relative Expense of Producing and Feeding Soiling Crops is 

Considerably Greater than in the Case of Silage 97 

14. A Field of Dwarf Black-hull Kafir Corn 110 

15. A Soybean Nitrogen Factory 114 

16. Alfalfa will Furnish an Abundance of Green Feed Throughout the 

Growing Season 115 

17. Curing and Harvesting Alfalfa 116 

18. Crimson Clover 120 

19. Sweet Clover is an Excellent Soil Builder 122 

20. A South Carolina Vetch Field 123 

21. A Field of Soybeans 126 

22. Half-sugar Mangels 134 

23. Rutabagas (Bloomsdale), a Good Type for Stock Feeding 135 

24. Carrots for Stock Feeding 136 

25. Pigs on Rape 139 

26. Spineless Cactus Yields Large Crops of a Very Watery Feed under 

Favorable Conditions , 146 

27. Stave Silos 149 

28. A Good Concrete Silo 152 

29. A California Dairy Barn with Concrete Silos 153 

30. A "Re-saw" Silo Being Filled with Alfalfa 154 

31. Battery of Four Cement Silos on a California Cattle Ranch 155 

32. Corn and Soybeans Grown for Silage 160 

ix 



x ILLUSTRATIONS 

33. Weeds Growing from Seed Found in a Mixed '•' Dairy Feed" 171 

34. Types of Grain Sorghums 173 

35. Diagram Showing Increase in Area Sown to Grain Sorghums in 

Kansas during the Decade 1904-13 174 

36. Section of Corn Kernel 185 

37. Cross-section of Flaxseed Showing the Different Layers of Cells . . . 196 

38. The Swelling Test 197 

39. Holstein Skim-milk-Calves 208 

40. Dairy Calves in the Pasture 217 

41. At Meal Time the Calf is Fed Warm, Sweet Milk in a Clean Pail, 

While Securely Fastened in a Comfortable Stanchion 218 

42. Calves in Stanchions in Pasture 219 

43. Dairy Cows of Good Breeding and Well Kept and Cared for Make 

Excellent Returns "at the Pail" 228 

44. Normal Changes in Monthly Yield and Fat Content of Milk from 

Dairy Cows 232 

45. Areas of Circles Representing Average Values of the Products from 

the Best Ten or the Poorest Ten Cows in the Wisconsin Dairy 
Cow Competition, 1909-1911 236 

46. Liberal Rations Fed to Cows of Beefy Tendencies Produce a Gain 

in Weight 236 

47. Spring Milk-scale Enabling the Farmer to Keep Accurate Milk 

Records of his Cows with but Very Little Extra Effort 237 

48. Babcock Test Apparatus 238 

49. Production and Size are the Factors Determining the Feed Re- 

quirements of Dairy Cows 239 

50. Alfalfa is, as a Rule, Fed in Racks in the Corrals (Feeding Yards) 

to Milch Cows in the Western States 246 

51. The " Meal Cart " Used for Weighing Concentrates for the Individual 

Cows in the Herd 247 

52. Weighing Rations for the Dairy Herd 248 

53. Yeksa Sunbeam, No. 15439, Guernsey 249 

54. Colantha 4th Johanna, No. 48577, Holstein 249 

55. May Rilma, No. 22761, Guernsey 250 

56. Tilly Alcartra, No. 123459, Holstein 250 

57. The Number and Value of Cattle Other than Milch Cows in the 

United States, April 15, 1910 254 

58. Number of Beef Cattle in the Corn Belt States, 1913 254 

59. Increase in Number of Cattle in this Country from 1890 to 1910. . . 255 

60. The Amount of Grain Required to Produce a Hundred Pounds of 

Gain in Fattening Steers Increases with the Range of the Feed- 
ing Period from about 730 Pounds to 1000 Pounds 260 

61. Tennessee Steers in the Feed Lot 263 

62. Steer Feeding Barns and Feeding Troughs on a California Cattle 

Ranch 267 

63. Beef Cattle Fattened on Corn, Fed in Large, Flat Troughs 268 



ILLUSTRATIONS xi 

64. The Self-feeder is Used by Many Farmers in the Corn Belt States 

for Feeding Corn or Grain Mixtures to Fattening Steers 268 

65. A Mississippi-raised "Baby Beef" Calf 269 

66. A Grand Champion Shorthorn Bull 270 

67. Fattening Steers in California 272 

68. Draft Horses that Give a Good Account of Themselves in the 

Show Ring, as Breeding Animals and for Doing Heavy Work 278 

69. Horses on the Western Range 289 

70. A Team of Farm Work Mules 291 

71. A Group of Young Berkshire Pigs 295 

72. The Amount of Feed Consumed Per 100 Pounds of Gain for 

Fattening Pigs Increases with Their Live Weights 296 

73. Well-fed, Busy Youngsters that will Grow into Good Porkers .... 297 

74. Diagram Showing the Number of Bushels of Corn and Number of 

Swine and Cattle Listed in the Twelve Leading Corn-growing 

States in the Union, According to the Census of 1910 299 

75 and 76. Pigs Fed for "Fat and Lean" 301 

77. Meal Time for the Swine Herd 302 

78. Making Pork on Rape and Oats 303 

79. Making Pork on Blue Grass 304 

80. A Thrifty Bunch of Sows and Pigs Crowding around the Feed 

Troughs 307 

81. A Cement Feeding Floor Provided with Sanitary Substantial 

Troughs is an Essential to a Well-equipped Piggery 309 

82. The "Hog Motor," a Device for Making Pigs Grind the Corn They 

Eat 309 

83. Portable Hog-houses with Low, Flat Roofs 310 

84. Interior Arrangement of Hog-houses at Illinois Station 311 

85. The Self-feeder Saves Labor in Feeding Pigs and other Farm 

Animals 312 

86. A Convenient Self-feeder for Supplying Charcoal and Mineral 

Matter to Pigs on Pasture 314 

87. Pure-bred Flock of Mutton Sheep at the Morgan Horse Farm .... 319 

88. A Fine Bunch of Yearling Rams 320 

89. A Good Type of Mutton Sheep 320 

90. Grade Dorset Lambs from Merino Ewes Make Excellent Hot- 

house Lambs 326 

91. Range Sheep in Feed Yards at Caldwell, Nevada 328 

92. A Flock of Sheep on a Western Range 328 

93. Lamb-feeding Corrals in Nevada 329 

94. Winter Scene of Range Sheep in the Nevada Mountains 330 

95. A Flock of Angora Goats in the California Foothills 332 

96. An Imported Swiss Milch Goat 333 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING 
OF FARM ANIMALS 



INTRODUCTION" 

Productive feeding of farm animals is only one of the factors 
on which successful animal husbandry depends ; others are : Keep- 
ing the right kind of stock; giving it the necessary care and atten- 
tion and maintaining the animals in a healthy condition. Each of 
these factors is of fundamental importance to the stockman. If 
one is not given due attention, the results secured will not be satis- 
factory, no matter how favorable the conditions with which the 
animals may be surrounded in other respects. 

A clear understanding of the main principles underlying the 
nutrition of farm animals has never been more important to the 
stock farmer than at the present time, with prevailing high prices for 
feed and labor. In order to secure profitable returns, the farmer 
must be able to adapt these principles to the special conditions that 
surround him; these are likely to vary in different years, both as to 
prices and products. Modern industries supply immense quantities 
of by-products that serve as feed for farm stock, such as flour- and 
oil-mill feeds, starch and sugar-factory feeds, brewery and dis- 
tillery feeds, and others. These differ much in nutritive values as 
well as in cost. Since better results may be obtained in feeding 
stock a combination of different feeds than from only one or 
two, it is important not only to understand the principles of stock 
feeding, but to become familiar with the different available feeding 
stuffs, their main characteristics and nutritive properties, as well 
as their relative values under changing market conditions. Only 
in this way can the stock farmer secure the best and most economical 
returns from his feeding operations and make stock raising pay; 
provided the other factors have received proper attention : Keep- 
ing animals adapted for the purpose in view, and giving them the 
care which they require in order to do well. 

Animal husbandry is one of the most remunerative branches of 
agriculture when rightly conducted, and it makes permanent agri- 
culture possible. The stock farmer is a manufacturer, converting 

1 



2 INTRODUCTION 

the raw materials raised on the farm into valuahle human food 
products. Generally speaking, the animal products sold contain 
only small amounts of fertility, and the stock farmer can, there- 
fore, secure good crops from his land for an indefinite period with a 
relatively small outlay for fertilizers. He does not, like many 
grain farmers, rob the farm of its fertility until it will no longer 
produce paying crops, making it necessary to change the system 
of farming or to move on to some other section where the same 
method of selling the fertility of the land can be repeated. Stock 
farming can be pursued on the same land with excellent results 
from generation to generation, and for centuries, as is shown by 
conditions in the agricultural regions of the Old World. 

The livestock farmer utilizes his own labor and that of his 
family throughout the year, and not only during the growing sea- 
son. Stock raising in general leads to thrift and develops some 
of the best qualities in man. His children grow up with young 
stock and learn to enjoy and love them, and thus in turn acquire one 
of the fundamentals for successful animal husbandry, an apprecia- 
tion of good stock and love of animals. Without these qualities, a 
farmer is not likely to give his stock the watchful care that they 
require for best results. 

There are various reasons why animal husbandry will continue 
to be one of the best paying branches of agriculture in America. 
One is, that our population is increasing considerably faster than is 
the number of farm animals. This holds true of all classes of 
livestock, except horses; there has, in reality, been an actual de- 
crease in the number of cattle, sheep, and swine in this country 
since the beginning of the present century, while our population in- 
creased over twenty per cent from 1900 to 1910. 

Another reason why stock raising will prove a profitable busi- 
ness in the future is the fact that it is not likely to be overcrowded. 
Stock raising calls for a larger investment than grain farming, and 
many farmers do not have or cannot secure the necessary capital to 
engage in animal husbandry; this is true especially of the large 
and increasing class of tenant farmers in many of the States. 
Furthermore, it takes from nearly a year to three or four years, 
according to the system of stock raising adopted, before the invest- 
ment will yield any revenue. Like people in other walks of life, 
many farmers lack the necessary business ability and foresight to 
plan ahead for such a period. If cattle, e.g., are low, and produce 
little or no revenue one year, it is easy to get discouraged, and 
many cannot see that such a period is just the time when one should 



INTRODUCTION 3 

plan for cattle raising, since a shortage of cattle with resulting 
high prices is certain to follow a period of low prices. 

The preceding considerations suggest the reasons for the belief 
held by those familiar with the situation, that the prospects for the 
livestock industry in this country are very bright. In spite of the 
high cost of feed and labor and the rise in land values during the 
last decade, the industry will furnish excellent opportunities for 
farmers that give their stock good care. But the changed condi- 
tions call for a higher type of farming and stock raising than that 
followed by the majority of farmers of earlier times. 

Only improved stock, bred for the specific purpose in view, can 
give the results that must be reached to make stock raising profit- 
able on high-priced land, and systems of feeding and management 
must be adopted that will secure such returns at a minimum cost. 
To be successful, the stock raiser must be a student and a business 
man, in addition to a farmer. He should secure all the technical 
knowledge relating to his profession that he can, and understand 
the leading principles of the livestock industry, so that he may be 
prepared to grapple successfully with the problems that confront the 
stockman. 



PART I 

PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

CHAPTEE I 
THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

The feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of farm animals are, 
as a general rule, of vegetable origin. They are either farm crops 
grown especially for this purpose, or are by-products from manu- 
facturing processes in which farm crops furnish the raw materials. 
It will be well, therefore, to examine into the composition of plants 
at the outset, in order that the discussions given in the following 
pages relative to the feeding of farm animals and problems con- 
nected therewith may be clearly understood. 

Chemical Elements. — Plants are composed of an immense 
number of different compounds; some of these are present in large 
proportions, others in only small amounts. When these compounds 
are separated into their ultimate constituents we find that they con- 
tain a relatively small number of substances which, according to 
our present knowledge, cannot be further subdivided. These sub- 
stances are known as elements. About a dozen of the elements are 
absolutely necessary to plant life, and no plant can grow in the 
absence of one or more of them. These so-called essential elements 
are: 

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potas- 
sium, calcium, magnesium, iron, fluorin, and iodin. 

A few other elements may not be essential to plant growth, but 
are always present in plants. These are : 

Sodium, chlorin, silicon, and manganese. 

The first group of elements, in fact the first six of them, make 
up the bulk of all plant materials ; over 95 per cent of the weight 
of most plants and feeding stuffs is composed of these few elements. 
But the other essential elements, although present in small amounts, 
are equally important, since plants cannot grow to maturity if any 
of them be lacking in the soil or not available to the plant. 

Group of Components in Feeds. — The elements given in the 
preceding paragraph are present in plants in chemical combinations 
with each other, forming in some cases very complex substances 

5 



6 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

whose exact composition has not yet been ascertained. For our 
present purpose they may, however, be conveniently considered as 
belonging to a few groups of substances which can be readily deter- 
mined by chemists. These groups of components are separated in 
the customary chemical analysis of feeding stuffs, and the per- 
centage quantities present in each are ascertained. For the pur- 
poses of chemical analysis and for our discussions we may thus 
consider plant materials composed of — 

I. Water. 

II. Dry substance. 

The dry substance of plants is of either (1) mineral or (2) so- 
called organic origin. The former components are known as 
mineral matter or ash; while the organic matter is composed of 
the following groups of substances : Protein, fat, nitrogen-free 
extract, and fiber. The last two belong to a group of substances 
known as carbohydrates. 

The schedule given below will help to make clear these various 
groups of plant components : 

Plants Contain — Composed of the elements 

I. Water Oxygen, hydrogen. 

(Potassium, sodium, calcium, 

II. Dry substance: 1. Mineral matter (ash) 1 magnesium, sulfur chlo- 
J v ' j rm, iron, phosphorus, 

I silicon, etc. 

( Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, 

2. Protein -J nitrogen, sulfur (and 

I sometimes phosphorus). 

3. Fat 1 

4. Nitrogen-free extract > Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen. 

5. Fiber J 

COMPOSITION OF PLANTS 

Water is found in all plants and plant materials, ranging in 
amount from 5 per cent to 95 per cent in extreme cases. Some 
factory by-products which have been artificially dried contain less 
than 10 per cent, in some cases as low as 5 per cent of water. Hay 
and dry coarse feeds generally contain from 10 to 20 per cent, 
while corn fodder (stover) and some kinds of hay, as alfalfa, will 
occasionally contain as much as 30 per cent of water when im- 
perfectly cured or exposed to damp or rainy weather. The cereals 
and most concentrated feeds contain about 12 per cent water- 
green forage crops from 70 to 90 per cent; silage, 70 to 80 per 



THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 7 

cent; root crops, beet pulp, and wet brewers' grains, 80 to 90 per 
cent; in case of turnips and some vegetables, as pumpkins, the 
water content may reach even 93 to 95 per cent (Fig. 1). 

A knowledge of the amount of water in a feeding stuff is im- 
portant, both because its value for the nutrition of farm animals 
is dependent thereon and because its keeping quality is affected 
thereby. An excessive water content renders plant materials liable 
to decomposition through the growth of bacteria and molds. 

Water is the vehicle by which nutrients in both plants and ani- 
mals are transported from one part to another. Plants absorb it 
from the soil through their roots, and with it take up mineral 
matter held in solution in the soil water. The quantity of water 



20 



30 



40 



50 60 



70 



80 



90 100 




MANGELS 
SKIM MILK 
TURNIPS 
COWS' MILK 
RAPE 

PASTURE GRASS 
GREEN CORN 
GREEN CLOVER 
CORN STALKS 
CLOVER HAY 
TIMOTHY HAY 
WHEAT BRAN 
INDIAN CORN 
OIL MEAL 
DRIED BEET PULP 



Fig. 1. — Water in common feeding stuffs, in per cent. 

thus taken up by plants is very large, and this is partly retained 
in the cells and the sap of the plants, and partly again evaporated 
through the leaves. For every pound of dry substance in the plant 
it has been found that about 400 pounds of water are required, on 
the average, the exact figure varying from below 300 to over 1000 
pounds, according to the character of the soil and the crop. 

Dry Substance. — The components of the dry substance of 
plants considered in the following pages are : Mineral matter or ash, 
protein, fat, nitrogen-free extract, and fiber. 

Mineral matter in plants is derived from the soil through the 
root system. This is the portion of the plants which remains as 
ashes after combustion. It is composed of the elements already 
given and, in addition, of many elements that happen to be present 



8 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



in the soil where the plant grew. The elements found in the mineral 
matter are present in one or two forms : Either in inorganic form, 
in combinations of two or more of the elements, as sulfates, phos- 
phates, nitrates, chlorides, or silicates, combined with bases, as 
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and iron ; or in organic 
form, as constituents of organic compounds. Especially in the case 
of seeds of plants the ash materials are present largely in the 
latter form. 

Ordinary feeding stuffs contain, as a rule, only relatively small 
amounts of mineral matter, viz. : Less than 5 per cent, except in 
the case of some factory by-products and dry forage, in which 
the ash content may go even above 10 per cent. Leafy plants con- 




20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 



ALfALFA HAY 
COTTON-SEED MEAL 
CLOVER HAY 
WHEAT BRAN 
LINSEED MEAL I 
DRIED BEET PULP 
TIMOTHY HAY 
DRIED BREWERS' GRAINS 
OATS' 
CORN 

GLUTEN FEED 
POTATOES 



Fig. 2. — Mineral matter in a ton of common feeds, in pounds. 

tain relatively large percentages of ash, like all parts of plants in 
which a considerable evaporation of water takes place. On the 
other hand, by-products in manufacturing processes where the raw 
materials are treated with large quantities of water, as gluten feed, 
brewers' grains, etc., have comparatively small ash contents (Fig. 2). 

Protein is a general name for nitrogenous organic compounds 
of a very complex chemical structure. They contain carbon, oxygen, 
hydrogen, and nitrogen, with a small percentage of sulfur and, in 
some cases, phosphorus. The name protein was given to these sub- 
stances by Mulder, a German chemist, and means the first or the 
most important. This term is justified from a physiological point 
of view, inasmuch as protein is absolutely essential to animal life. 

The protein substances are characterized by the fact that all 
contain the element nitrogen, which is not found in the other groups 



THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 9 

of organic plant substances. It was formerly believed that all pro- 
teins contain about 16 per cent nitrogen, and, since this element 
can be readily determined by the chemist, the content of protein in 
a substance was obtained by multiplying the nitrogen content by- 1 ™, 
or 6.25. Later investigations showed that the different protein sub- 
stances vary considerably in chemical composition, and that the per- 
centage of nitrogen they contain may range from 15 to over 19 per 
cent. Hence, the factor 6.25 is often not correct, but it is generally 
applied, since our knowledge of the composition of pure proteins 
from different sources is still incomplete. We shall, therefore, con- 
tinue the use of the factor 6.25 in this book until chemists have 
agreed on specific factors to be used in the case of plant materials 
and feeding stuffs of different origin. 

Besides nitrogen, proteins contain between 50 and 55 per cent 
of carbon, 6 to 7 per cent hydrogen, 20 to 24 per cent oxygen, 
0.3 to 2.3 per cent sulfur; the phosphorus content of the proteins 
in which this element is present ranges between 0.4 and 0.9 per 
cent. The average composition of protein substances may be given 
as follows : 

Carbon, 53 per cent. Nitrogen, 16 per cent. 

Hydrogen, 7 per cent. Sulfur, 2 per cent. 

Oxygen, 22 per cent. 

The proteins form a most important group of nutrients, since 
they furnish the materials for building up body tissues and fluids; 
other nutrients cannot take their place for this purpose. We shall 
see, however, that protein may also serve other purposes than to 
furnish material for tissue building when necessary, viz. : To supply 
energy that may be used for maintaining body heat, for performing 
work, or for storage as body fat. 

Classification of Proteins. — Protein substances are generally classified 
as (1) simple, (2) conjugated, and (3) derived proteins. 

1. Simple Proteins. — The most important compounds in this group 
are given below. 

a. Albumins. — These are soluble in pure water and are coagulated and 
rendered insoluble by heat. They are present in small amounts in the sap 
and seeds of plants. The main proteins found in the animal body belong 
to this class, viz.: Those of the muscle, blood, milk, and eggs. Leucosin 
found in the cereals, legumelin found in leguminous seeds, ricin in castor 
bean, and tuberin in potatoes, belong to this class. 

b. Globulins are insoluble in water, but soluble in a 10 per cent sodium 
chloride solution. The globulins are abundant in plant materials and have 
been identified in many seeds of plants. The following are present in 
the cereals and other common seeds: Maysin in corn kernels, edestin in 
corn, wheat, cotton seed, and flaxseed, avenalin in oats, legumin and 
vicilin in leguminous seeds (peas, lentils, horse beans), glycin in soy- 
beans, and conglutin in lupines. 



10 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

c. Prolamins are insoluble in water and soluble in 70 to 90 per cent 
alcohol. To this class belong gliadin, found in wheat and rye grain; hordein 
in barley, and zein in corn. 

d. Glutclins are insoluble in water, salt solutions, or alcohol, and 
soluble in dilute alkali solutions. Glutenin belonging in this group is found 
in seeds of wheat, barley, oats, and corn. 

The following summary shows the simple plant proteins that have 
been identified in cereals and some other seeds; the approximate percentages 
present in each case, as given by Osborne, are stated. 

In wheat grains: Leucosin, 0.3; edestin, 0.0; gliadin, 4.25, and 
glutenin, 4.0. 

Rye: Leucosin, 0.4; gliadin, 4.0. 

Barley: Leucosin, 0.3; hordein, 4.0; glutenin, 4.5. 

Oats: Avenalin, 1.5; glutenin, 11.25. 

Corn: Maysin, 0.25; edestin, 0.14; zein, 6.1, and glutenin, 3.8. 1 

Peas: Legumelin, 2.0; legumin and vicilin, 10.0. 

Flaxseed: Edestin, 17.0. 

Horse beans: Legumelin, 1.5; legumin and vicilin, 13.0. 

2. Conjugated or Modified Proteins. — These substances have been modi- 
fied so as to possess different chemical and physical properties from the 
simple proteins thus far considered, either through combinations with other 
compounds, or through the action of ferments, heat, or chemicals. The 
nucleoproteins belong to this group, of which the best known is casein of 
milk. They contain phosphorus in addition to the elements that are 
always found in protein substances. 

3. Derived Proteins. — These are intermediate bodies formed in the 
cleavage of the protein molecule in the process of digestion; they are 
diffusible and are assimilated by the living cell for use in the building 
up (synthesis) of true proteins. Proteose and peptones are the more 
important representatives of this class. On further cleavage they are 
changed into amino acids, the final decomposition products formed in the 
digestion of protein substances. The amino acids are the primary build- 
ing materials out of which the protein substances of the animal body are 
formed. The different protein substances vary greatly in the proportions 
of amino acids into which they may be broken up; the differences in the 
nutritive effects of proteins of different origin that have been observed 
appear to be intimately connected with this fact. 

Amino Acids and Amides. — Both amino acids and amides are 
protein substances of simpler molecular structure than those con- 
sidered in the preceding paragraphs. The former are found free in 
only small amounts in plants, while amides occur in abundance in 
the sap of green and young plants, especially after sprouting, as 
well as in all immature plant materials. The best known amides 
are asparagin, found in young asparagus, peas and beans; glutamin 
and betain, found in the beet root, etc. The amides are inter- 
mediate products formed in the living plant from inorganic ma- 
terials (nitric acid or ammonia), and are later changed into complex 
protein substances. They are also formed in the decomposition of 
proteins through the action of bacteria and molds, hence are 
always present in silage and other fermented feeds. 

1 Assumed. 



THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 11 

In contradistinction to total or crude protein (i.e., total nitrogen 
multiplied by 6.25), the protein substances other than amides are 
called true proteins or albuminoids. The amides are considered 
of inferior value in feeding farm animals by some authorities, but it 
has been shown that they will save body protein from decomposition, 
and, in some cases at least, they can be utilized for the building up 
of protein tissues in the animal body. Amides are also present in 
small amounts in dry feeds and in most concentrates. 

The average proportion of non-albuminoid (" amide ") nitro- 
gen in various feeds is as follows : Green forage crops, 20 to 40 
per cent of the total nitrogen content, according to the stage when 
cut; corn silage, 40 per cent; mangels, 60 per cent; potatoes, 40 
per cent; small grains, 3 to 11 per cent; mill feed, 10 per cent, 
and oil meals, 4 per cent. 

High- and Low-protein Feeds. — Feeds rich in protein sub- 
stances are spoken of as high-protein feeds, or simply protein feeds 
or nitrogenous feeds, and those low in protein are called low-protein 
or starchy feeds. Among the former class (high-protein feeds) 
may be mentioned : 

Concentrates. — Peanut cake meal, containing about 48 per cent 
protein; cotton-seed meal and soybean meal, 40 to 45 per cent; 
gluten meal, 34 to 36 per cent ; soybeans and linseed meal, 34 to 36 
per cent; dried distillers' grains, 32 per cent; malt sprouts and 
dried brewers' grains, 26 per cent. 

Coarse Feeds. — Pea hay, 22.9 per cent ; vetch and sweet clover, 18 
per cent; alfalfa hay, white and crimson clover, 15 per cent. 

As examples of low-protein feeds may be given : 

Concentrates. — Cereal grains, 10 to 12 per cent; dried beet pulp, 
and corn and cob meal, 8 to 9 per cent ; rice, 7.4 per cent. 

Coarse Feeds. — Timothy hay, 5.9 per cent; hay from mixed 
grasses and Hungarian grass, 6 to 8 per cent; barley hay and oat 
hay, 8 to 9 per cent; straw from the cereals, 3 to 4 per cent; corn 
stover, 1 to 2 per cent; corn silage, 2.7 per cent. 

Fats are organic compounds consisting largely of mixtures of 
fatty acids, combined with glycerine (so-called glycerides). The 
more common fats are stearin, palmitin, and olein. The last-men- 
tioned glyceride is liquid at ordinary temperatures, and, if present in 
large quantities, renders the mixed fat liquid or very soft. Lineoleic 
and linolenic acids are also found in the seeds of some plants, like 
flaxseed and soybeans; on exposure to the air in a thin layer, they 
take up oxygen and " set," i.e., they dry and harden. This difference 



12 



PRINCIPLES OP FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



in the behavior on exposure to the air is characteristic of drying and 
non-drying oils. 

Some seeds contain large proportions of fat, while others, e.g., 
some of the cereals, are low in fat (oil) (Fig. 3). The coarse feeds 
contain other materials than fat which are soluble in ether, the 
solvent for fat used in chemical analysis, viz., chlorophyl and various 
resinous substances. The ether extract, in the case of these feeds, 



20 



25 



30 



35 



FLAXSEED 

SOYBEANS 

DRIED DISTILLERS' GRAINS 

COTTON-SEED MEAL 

UNSEED MEAL 

CORN 

OATS 

WHEAT BRAN 

GLUTEN FEED 

RYE 

BARLEY 

CANADA PEAS 

MANGELS 

POTATOES 

SKIM MILK 




Fig. 3. — Fats in common feeding stuffs, in per cent. 

is, therefore, not as pure fat as that from concentrated feeds. The 
following figures show the average percentages of fat present in 
various feeds: 



Concentrates Per cent 

Rice 0.4 

Wheat, barley, buckwheat 1.8 to 2.2 
Indian corn and oats. . . . 5.0 to 5.4 

Soybeans 17.2 

Flaxseed 33.7 

Cotton seed 30. 6 



Coarse feeds Per cent 

Soiling crops 0.3 to 2.1 

Hays 1.7 to 3.6 

Straws 1.2 to 2.3 

Roots 0.1 to 0.4 

Corn silage 0.9 



Fat contains more carbon and less hydrogen than the group 
known as carbohydrates, viz., on the average, 

Carbon, 76 per cent. 
Hydrogen, 12 per cent. 
Oxygen, 11.5 per cent. 

They, therefore, furnish more energy on combustion and are 
more valuable as heat-producing substances than are the carbo- 
hydrates (for which see p. 13). 



THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 13 

Nitrogen-free extract is a general name for all non-nitrogenous 
organic substances in plants and plant materials besides fat and 
fiber. It includes a large number of substances of different proper- 
ties and value for feeding purposes, such as starch, sugar, pentosans, 
pectin, organic acids, and other compounds that are present in 
plants in small amounts and are of minor importance. The name 
" nitrogen-free extract " is in reality a misnomer, as but few of the 
substances included under this group name are soluble in water or 
other liquids; it has come into general use, however, since the early 
days of agricultural chemical analysis, and no better name for this 
group of substances has so far been suggested. 

Carbohydrates. — The nitrogen-free extract and fiber form the 
group called carbohydrates. These include substances widely dis- 
tributed in plants and of the greatest importance to the feeder. 
They are, in general, characterized by the fact that they contain the 
elements carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, the latter two being present 
in the same ratio as in water, one molecule of which contains two 
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen (H 2 0). The more im- 
portant substances of this group are briefly considered below. 

Starch is one of the first organic substances formed in the living 
plant from the carbon-dioxide of the air and water. It is changed to 
sugar in the transfer of carbohydrates from one part of the plant 
to another, and accumulates as such in large quantities as reserve 
material in some plants, as the beet root and sugar cane. In others 
it is changed into oil or fat, as in the so-called oil-bearing seeds, 
flax, sunflower, castor bean, etc. In still others, which most fre- 
quently happens, there is an accumulation of starch in the seeds, 
as in the case of the cereals and legumes. 

On boiling with dilute acid or through the action of diastatic 
ferments (diastase, ptyalin, etc.), starch is changed to sugar. This 
process forms the basis for the manufacture of corn or glucose syrup 
from Indian corn. 

The starch of many plants can be identified by their characteris- 
tic microscopic structure, but from the feeder's point of view there is 
no difference in the value of starch from different sources. 

The average percentages of starch found in some plants are as 
follows : 

Eice, 79; corn, 71; wheat, 69; rye, 67; barley, 65; potatoes, 63; 
oats, 53; beans and peas, 39. Starch is found only in small 
amounts in coarse feeds or in stems and leaves of plants. 



14 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

When subjected to ultimate chemical analysis, the percentage 
composition of starch is shown to be as follows : 

44.4 per cent carbon, 

G.2 per cent hydrogen, 
49.4 per cent oxygen. 

Sugar is found in many farm crops during the immature stage 
of the plant, but, as a rule, it is changed back to starch in the mature 
plant. There are a number of different sugars found in plant 
materials, classified as mono-, di,- or poly-saccharides. 

The following statement shows the more important sugars in 
each of these classes: 

a. Monosaccharides. — Dextrose (or glucose), levulose (or fructose), 
and galactose. They occur in unripe plants and in fruits. Like other 
carbohydrates, they are composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, with 
six atoms of carbon in the molecule; hence are also called hexoses. 

b. Di-saccharidcs. — Sucrose (cane-sugar), maltose (malt-sugar), and 
lactose (milk-sugar). These contain twelve atoms of carbon in the mole- 
cule, combined with a corresponding number of atoms of oxygen and hydro- 
gen (p. 13 ) . Sucrose is found in large quantities in sugar beets and sugar 
cane; when ripe both of these plants contain 12 to 18 per cent of this sugar, 
according to the character of the seed used, method of cultivation, season, 
soil, etc. These crops are the two great sugar plants of the world, all other 
sources of sugar, like sugar maple, sorghum, etc., being of minor importance. 

c. Polysaccharides or amyloses, containing a multiple of six carbon 
atoms in the molecule. To these belong starch, dextrine, cellulose, and 
glycogen. The substances in both this and the preceding group are readily 
changed into mono-saccharides (glucose) through hydrolysis (boiling with 
dilute acids), or through the action of ferments, as already stated under 
starch. 

The pentosans and pentoses stand close to starch and sugar, 
respectively, being the corresponding compounds with only five 
atoms of carbon in the molecule. The pentosans are readily changed 
to pentoses on boiling with acids. They have an important nutri- 
tive value, almost equal to that of starch, and well merit the atten- 
tion which they have received from chemists during late years. The 
pentosans are widely distributed in plants, and make up a consider- 
able proportion of the nitrogen-free extract of many plants. Hay 
from grasses contains about 20 per cent of pentosans; gluten feed. 
17 per cent; dried brewers' grains and wheat bran, 2-4 per cent; 
clover, 10 per cent ; cereal straw, 22 per cent ; oil meal and dried 
distillers' grains, 13 per cent. 

The best known substances of this group are araban, found in 
beet pulp, cherrygum, etc., and xylan or wood gum, found in wood 
and straw. 



THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



15 



The pectin bodies occur especially in unripe fruits ; these sub- 
stances are responsible for the jellying of fruit juices, which de- 
pends upon pectin taking up water during the boiling of the fruit, 
gelatinous substances being formed known as pectoses or pectic 
acids. The mucilaginous substances of flaxseed and seeds or roots 
of some other plants belong to this group ; these substances do not, 
however, possess the importance that is attached to the preceding 
three groups of compounds. 

Fiber (called crude fiber or woody fiber by some authors) 
makes up the cell walls of the plants and is largely composed of 
cellulose. So-called incrusting substances (lignin and cutin) are 
always present, especially in tough, woody plant materials, like 



20 



25 



30 



35 



40 45 



50 




COTTON-SEED HULLS 

BUCKWHEAT HULLS 

OAT STRAW 

OAT HULLS 

CORN COBS 

TIMOTHY HAY 

CLOVER HAY 

CORN STALKS 

DRIED 8REWERS' GRAINS 

OATS 

WHEAT BRAN 

GLUTEN FEED 

WHEAT MIOOLINGS 

BARLEY 

INDIAN CORN 



Fig. 4. — Fiber in plant materials, in per cent. 

husk, hulls, seed-coats, overripe hay and straw, which contain con- 
siderable proportions of these substances in the fiber. Fiber is more 
resistant to the action of solvents and digestive fluids than other 
groups of plant materials. It is attacked by bacteria and possibly 
by special ferments in the intestinal tract of herbivorous animals. 
By this decomposition marsh gas and other gases are formed, and 
also organic acids, like acetic and butyric acids. Since straw is very 
high in fiber, and ruminants, like steers, sheep, and goats, can sub- 
sist for a long time on coarse straw only, we are justified in con- 
cluding that this substance possesses a certain nutritive value, 
although authorities differ as to how much value shall be ascribed 
to the digestible portion of cellulose. 

Plants increase in their contents of fiber toward maturity as the 



16 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

stems become coarse aud tough; hence their digestibility decreases 
during the latter stages of plant growth (p. 58). The following 
approximate amounts of fiber are found in different classes of 
feeding stuffs: 

Buckwheat hulls, buckwheat straw, and flax shives, 45 per cent; 
straw of cereals, 40 per cent ; hay from different grasses or legumes, 
20 to 35 per cent; cereals, 0.2 per cent (rice) to 10.8 per cent (oats) ; 
roots and tubers, 0.4 to 2.2 per cent; concentrated feeds, 0.9 to 30 
per cent, generally, however, less than 20 per cent (Fig. 4). 

A high fiber content indicates that a feed is of relatively low 
value for stock feeding, and vice versa. The figures for this com- 
ponent, with those for protein and fat, are, therefore, of the great- 
est assistance to feed buyers in judging the value of manufactured 
and other feeds. 

Chemical Analyses of Feeding Stuffs. — The following com- 
ponents are determined by the chemist in the ordinary analysis of 
feeding stuffs: Water (often called moisture), protein, fat, fiber, 
and ash; the difference between 100 and the sum of percentages 
of these various components obtained in the analysis is known as 
nitrogen-free extract (starch, sugar, pentosans, organic acids, etc.). 

Methods of Chemical Analysis. — The outline of the common method 
adopted in chemical laboratories in the analysis of feeding stuffs given below 
will be of value to students by enabling them to better understand data 
and discussions relating to the chemical composition of feeding stuffs 
(Fig. 5). 

a. Moisture (water) is determined by heating a small portion (gener- 
ally 2 grams) 2 of the carefully-sampled and finely-divided feeding stuff 
in a steam-bath or water oven at 100° C. for two to five hours, till it no 
longer loses weight. After cooling in a desiccator, it is weighed, carefully 
on a chemical balance and the percentage loss calculated on the original 
weight is taken to represent moisture. Volatile organic substances some- 
times present in minute amounts in plant materials would also be in- 
cluded in this loss. In the case of some feeding stuffs containing fats that 
take up oxygen, as corn, flaxseed, and other oil-bearing seeds, the material 
must be heated in a current of hydrogen or other inert gas, so as to 
prevent oxidation and a resulting increase in weight during the drying, 
which would give too low a moisture content. 

b. Fat. — The residue from the preceding determination is extracted 
with anhydrous sulfuric ether in a suitable apparatus for a considerable 
period of time, generally 16 hours, till the fat has been completely dissolved. 
The ether is distilled off and the residue dried at 100 ° C. and weighed. 
As previously stated, the ether extract, in the case of roughage and some 
other feeds, contains considerable impurities, as chlorophyl, wax, and 
resins. 

c. Protein is obtained by multiplying the total nitrogen by 6.25 (see 
p. 9), the nitrogen being determined by the Kjeldahl method, so called 
after the inventor, a Danish chemist. In this method a small portion of 
the feed (generally 1 gram) is heated with 20 c.c. sulfuric acid till the 



j^of an ounce. 1 ounce equals 28.35 grams. 



THE COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



17 



organic matter has been completely decomposed and the nitrogen has been 
changed into ammonium sulfate. This is dissolved in distilled water, 
and 50 c.c. of a concentrated soda solution are added, the flask being 
connected with a distillation apparatus and heat applied. A certain 
quantity of standard hydrochloric acid solution, more than sufficient to 
neutralize the ammonia obtained in the oxidation of the protein, has been 
previously added in the receiving flask, and the distillation is now con- 
tinued till all ammonia has been distilled over. The excess of acid in the 
receiving flask is then accurately titrated back (neutralized), and from the 
volume of acid used the amount of nitrogen in the sample is obtained. 
This is calculated in percentage of the amount of sample weighed out, 
and by multiplying by 6.25 the percentage of protein contained in the 
sample is obtained. 




Fig. 5. — View of a chemical laboratory for analysis of feeding stuffs and other agricultural 
products. (Wisconsin Station.) 

d. Fiber is determined in the residue from the ether extract by boiling 
first with 200 c.c. of a 1.25 per cent sulfuric acid solution and then with 
200 c.c. of a soda solution of the same strength. After filtering, drying, and 
weighing, the residue is ignited, and the loss in weight, calculated on the 
amount of the sample originally weighed out, shows the percentage of 
fiber in the feed. This method, which is known as the Weende method, 
gives pure cellulose or woody fiber, with some impurities like pentosans, 
incrusting substances (lignin, cutin), and certain insoluble proteins. The 
method does not give very satisfactory results, and is only used for want 
of some better method of arriving at the amount of fiber present in feeding 
stuff's. 

e. Ash or mineral matter is obtained by igniting at a low red heat 2 
grams of the sample and weighing the residue after cooling in a desic- 
cator. The crude ash thus obtained generally contains free carbon, as well 
as carbonates and sulfates formed by oxidation of organic components of 
plant materials. It is sometimes purified, and the amount thus found is 
given as pure ash. 



18 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

f. Nitrogen-free extract is obtained by subtracting tbe sum of the 
percentages of the preceding components from 100. It includes chiefly 
starch, sugar, pentosans, and organic acids (p. 13). The amounts of the 
first three components are also sometimes determined separately by well- 
known methods of analysis of interest mainly to chemists. 3 

The example given below will show the customary form of re- 
porting analyses of feeding stuffs. 

Chemical Analysis of Timothy Hay 

Per cent 

Moisture 13.2 

Crude protein 5.9 

Fat 2.5 

Fiber 20.0 

Nitrogen-free extract 45.0 

Ash 4.4 



100.0 
QUESTIONS 

1. Name the elements essential to plant growth; also some others that 

are always present in plants. 

2. What are the groups of plant components determined in ordinary chemical 

analyses? 

3. Give the main characteristics of each one of these components. 

4. What is protein, nitrogen-free extract, carbohydrates? 

5. State the difference in the chemical composition of these substances. 

6. Give the ordinary form of reporting a chemical analysis of a feeding 

stuff. 

3 For complete directions for making chemical analyses of feeding 
stuffs and other agricultural products, see Official and Provisional Methods 
of Analysis, Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Bureau of 
Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 107 (Revised), 
Washington, 1912. 



CHAPTER II 
THE COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 

We find, in general, similar substances in the animal body as in 
plants, but the relation between the different groups of components 
differs, and some substances found in animals do not exist in plants, 
or differ in their properties from the corresponding plant constit- 
uents. Animals are composed of water, protein bodies, fat and 
mineral matter ; the protein, or protein and fat, make up the largest 
proportions of the dry matter of animals, while carbohydrates are 
present in only small amounts. We have seen that the dry matter of 
plants, on the other hand, is largely composed of carbohydrates, 
and that protein is, as a rule, present in relatively small amounts. 

The composition of different farm animals varies according 
to their body condition, especially the amount of fat which they 
carry. The classic experiments of Lawes and Gilbert which were 
conducted about 1850 at the Rothamsted Experiment Station, Eng- 
land, furnished the first accurate information on this point; their 
findings have been corroborated during later years by investigations 
at the Maine and Missouri Experiment Stations and elsewhere. 
The following summary table shows the percentage composition of 
live animals, less contents of stomach and intestines : 

Composition of Live Animals, in Per Cent. (Lawes and Gilbert.) 





Water 


Fat 


Protein 


Ash 


Fat calf 


64.6 

66.2 
59.0 
49.5 

67.5 
63.2 
58.9 
50.9 
43.3 

57.9 
43.9 


14.1 

8.7 
17.5 
30.5 

10.2 
15.5 
21.3 
31.9 
41.4 

24.2 
42.3 


16.5 

19.2 
18.3 
15.6 

18.3 
17.4 
16.0 
13.9 
12.2 

15.0 
11.9 


4.8 


Steer, well fed 


5.9 


half fat 


5.2 


fat 


4.4 


Sheep, lean 


4.0 


well fed 


3.9 


half fed 


3.8 


fat 


3.3 


very fat 


3.1 


Swine, well fed 


2.9 


fat 


1.9 







The figures given in the table show that the fatter an animal is, 
the less water, protein, and ash will it contain ; also, that the per- 
centage of fat in the body of a steer may range from at least 8 to 30 
per cent, that in a sheep from 10 to 41 per cent, and that in a hog 

19 



20 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



from 24 to 42 per cent. As these percentages increase, those for the 
other components decrease ; e.g., the water contents in the body of a 
steer decrease from 66 to 49 per cent, in sheep from 67 to 43 per 
cent, and in swine from 58 to 44 per cent. In all cases except 
where the animals are very fat, their bodies consist of more than 
one-half water; the body of a lean animal or a fat calf (as of all 
young animals) is made up of nearly two-thirds water. As the 
animal grows toward maturity, and especially during fattening, the 
proportion of water in its body tissue becomes generally smaller, 
and that of fat increases. This is because the increase in body 



20 



100 



STEER, WELL FtO 


HALF FAT 


TAT 


FAT CALF 


SHEEP. LEAN 


WELL FEO 


HALF FAT 


FAT 


VERY FAT 


SWINE, WELL FED 


FAT 



OH 




















■ 




==ssss 


ssmk 


^^8 


&§&& 


\\VN^ 


ftSi&^Ki! 


























i ==: 


smm 


^^^ 


sNSfcid 


:S\\\\V> 


fc^JSsSS 


:n\W,\ 










































■L" 


//////// 


t=fci>N$ 


*$mmk 


J^^S 


*m^ 


^\^ 


^\v 


J^X*S 






















'///////A 


'////Ate 


sK^M 


-mm, 


^i^ 


^^^; 


kw^ 


^^^ 


KvWS 




















Ml.7. 


V//////A 


Hfc=*K 


i&sssm 


<SSS^! 


■^ms: 


^S*^ 


*^*^> 


!S\^\\ 

























































































































Fig. 6. 



mm, PROTEIN ^53 WATER 

-Composition of live animals less contents of stomach and intestines, in per cent. 



weight of animals with increasing age or during fattening is com- 
posed of more dry matter and less water than when the animal is 
young or has not been fattened, and not because the fat replaces the 
water in the body tissues (Fig. 6). 

The composition of the increase of live weight in fattening 
has been calculated by Lawes and Gilbert for steers, sheep, and hogs. 
They found that if a steer, for example, gained 100 pounds during 
fattening, these 100 pounds would be composed, on the average, as 
follows : 

Water, 23.8 pounds, and total dry matter, 76.2 pounds, made up of: 

Fat, 67.8 pounds, 

Protein, 7.3 pounds, 

Ash, 1.1 pounds. 

While lean animals consist of nearly two-thirds water and less 
than one-tenth fat, the increase in body substance during fattening 



THE COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 21 

is over two-thirds fat and less than one-fourth water, and protein 
makes up only about 7 per cent of the increase. It is easy to under- 
stand, in view of these figures, why fat and older animals can com- 
mand higher prices than young or lean animals, and why the per- 
centage dressed weight of cattle, for example, is higher in the case 
of the former kind of animals than with the latter. 1 

Components of the Animal Body. — We shall now briefly con- 
sider the chemical composition and main characteristics of the 
various groups of components found in the animal body. 

Protein. — Protein substances are found in all parts of the ani- 
mal body, in the blood, lymph, muscles, connective tissues, milk, etc. 

The blood is the vehicle by which the digested and absorbed 
nutrients are distributed throughout the body, and which supplies 
its different parts with the substances necessary for growth and 
the exercise of vital functions. Blood makes up about 8 per cent 
of the body weight of horses, cattle, and sheep, and less than 
5 per cent of that of the pig. It is composed of a liquid portion 
called plasma, in which the blood-cells or corpuscles are suspended. 
The plasma makes up about two-thirds of the blood; it contains 
three protein substances in solution, viz., fibrinogen, serum globulin, 
and serum albumen. On clotting of the blood or when it is whipped, 
the fibrinogen is changed, through a special ferment called thrombin, 
into fibrin, which entangles the blood-corpuscles and holds them in 
a solid clot. The liquid that separates from clotted blood on stand- 
ing is called blood-serum. 

There are two kinds of blood-corpuscles, red and white. The 
red corpuscles are minute, round discs, thai vary in shape and size 
in different animals. They are composed of a spongy albuminoid 
substance which holds in its meshes the red coloring matter called 
haemoglobin. This is a very complex protein substance and con- 
tains about one-half of one per cent of iron, in addition to the ordi- 
nary components of protein. Haemoglobin is a dark, purplish red, 
crystalline substance which has great affinity for oxygen. It absorbs 
oxygen in the lungs, forming oxyhaemoglobin ; this again readily 
gives up its oxygen in the cells of the different body tissues when 
the oxidation (combustion) of nutrients takes place. The chemical 
changes that occur in the cells and are necessary for the continu- 
ance of life and for growth are dependent on this supply of oxygen 
and on the nutrients which are carried to the different parts of the 
body by the blood. 

1 See live weight and dressed weight of steers of different breeds and 
ages, Woll, " Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen," Gth ed., p. 206. 



22 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

The white blood-corpuscles (so-called leucocytes) are of larger 
size than the red ones, and are found in only small numbers com- 
pared with red corpuscles. The leucocytes have the power of going 
through the walls of the capillaries (p. 31), and can pass with the 
lymph in between the cells of the tissues. In case some part of the 
body is injured or diseased, they collect there in large numbers, and 
on breaking down form pus. Their main function appears to be to 
destroy disease germs. 

The muscular tissues in animals consist approximately of 75 per 
cent water, 20 per cent protein, largely myosinogen (myosin), be- 
longing to the globulin group 3 per cent fat, less than 1 per cent 
carbohydrates (glycogen and dextrose), 0.2 per cent nitrogenous 
waste products (so-called extractives), and 1.0 to 1.5 per cent salts. 
The extractives are mainly creatin, with xanthine, uric acid, urea, 
and other waste products that are present in small quantities. The 
mineral matter in the muscle consists largely of potassium phos- 
phates ; small amounts of salts of sodium, calcium, magnesium, and 
iron are also present. 

Connective tissues form another class of nitrogenous organic 
substances in the animal body. To this group belong tendons, liga- 
ments, cartilage, skin, horns, hoofs, etc. Tbey are all insoluble in 
water or salt solutions, and are only slightly attacked by acids or 
alkalies. Among the substances of this group that have been 
identified only two need be mentioned here, collagen and keratin. 
The former is the main organic component of cartilage and bone, 
and also makes up a large proportion of tendons and ligaments. 
On long boiling with water, collagen is dissolved and forms gelatin, 
which solidifies on cooling. Keratin is the main component of 
skin, hoofs, horns, wool, hair, and feathers, all substances that offer 
the greatest resistance to the action of solvents. Keratin contains 
4 to 5 per cent sulfur in addition to the elements ordinarily found 
in protein compounds. On treatment with steam under pressure 
it is rendered soluble and forms glue. The manufacture of this 
material is an important side-line of the large packing houses. 

Milk contains two important protein substances, casein and 
albumen. Casein belongs to the so-called nucleoproteins, combina- 
tions of albumen and phosphoric acid. It is suspended in a colloidal 
state in milk, and is not in perfect solution, hence may be separated 
out by means of centrifugal force. On addition of an acid to the 
milk, or through the action of enzymes, like rennin or pepsin, 
casein is precipitated, and the milk " curdles." The manufacture 
of cheese from milk depends on this property of casein. Milk 



THE COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 23 

albumen is soluble in water, and, like other albumens, is coagulated 
on heating above 80° C. (176° F.). Milk contains about 3.2 per 
cent casein and albumen, the content ranging between 2.5 per cent 
and 4.6 per cent, according to the quality of the milk ; about 80 per 
cent of the total milk proteins is composed of casein ; the rest is 
largely albumen. 

Fats may be present in animals as body fat, in the marrow of 
bones, and in milk. They occur in the former two as oval or round 
cells that are composed of a nitrogenous membrane filled with fluid 
fat in live animals. The body fat is similar in composition to the 
vegetable fats, being largely composed of glycerides of the fatty 
acids, stearic, palmitic, and oleic acids, but the proportions of the 
different glycerides vary from that of plant fats, and there are also 
characteristic components of animal fat which are not found in 
the vegetable kingdom. Milk fat is composed of the three glycerides 
mentioned and, in addition, of about 8 per cent of glycerides of 
volatile fatty acids (mainly butyric acid), which give the char- 
acteristic fine flavor to fresh butter and, on decomposition, a ran- 
cid flavor to old butter. On account of the presence of these 
volatile fatty acids in butter it is possible to distinguish, by means 
of chemical analysis, between natural pure butter and artificial 
or adulterated butter. 

Body fat may be deposited in animals receiving an abundant 
supply of feed; it is stored either between the layers of muscular 
tissue, about the internal organs, or directly beneath the skin, espe- 
cially on the backs of animals. The body fat makes a reserve ma- 
terial that the animal can draw upon in time of a scarcity of feed. 
Through systematic liberal feeding and other favorable conditions 
the faculty to lay on body fat has been greatly developed in fatten- 
ing animals, especially pigs. Adipose tissue of pigs consists of about 
92 per cent of pure fat, the balance being 6.4 per cent water and 
1.35 per cent nitrogenous substances (membrane). 

Lipoids form a group of bodies that stand close to the fats. 
They are mixed with fats in various tissues and organs of the body. 
Only two of these substances will be mentioned here, lecithin and 
cholesterin. The former consists of glycerin and stearic and 
phosphoric acids, with a nitrogenous base known as cholin. It is 
found in the nerve tissues, cellular structures, and in the bile. 
Cholesterin is likewise found in the nerve tissues and cells of the 
body, and also in the liver, brain, eggs, and in wool fat. It is 
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and does not contain 
either nitrogen or phosphorus. In spite of relatively small quanti- 



24 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

ties in which the lipoids occur in the animal body, they appear to be 
of the greatest importance in the nutrition of animals, especially 
in the case of growing animals. 

Ash Materials. — The animal body contains the same ash ma- 
terials as are found in plants, and it holds true, as a general proposi- 
tion, that the elements which are essential to the life of plants are 
also essential to animal life. In the case of two elements, sodium 
and chlorin, the evidence at hand is not sufficient to show that 
they are absolutely essential to plants, but, since they are present 
in all soils, plants always contain an ample supply of both elements. 
It is definitely known, however, that both sodium and chlorin are 
essential to the growth of animals and to the continued exercise 
of their vital functions. We shall see that gastric juice, one of the 
digestive fluids of the body, contains free hydrochloric acid; this 
acid comes from the sodium chloride (common salt) found in the 
feed of the animals or eaten directly by them. Animals fed largely 
coarse feeds receive a sufficient amount of salt in the feed to supply 
their wants, but when fed much grain or other concentrates low in 
mineral matter, they need more salt than that contained in the 
feed; all farm animals relish salt greatly, and the practice of 
" salting " livestock has, therefore, become quite general. 

Salt improves the appetite of the animals and increases the flow 
of digestive juices; it promotes and regulates digestion and should, 
therefore, be furnished in ample amounts. In the case of milch 
cows at least, a supply of salt in addition to that in the feed is 
essential to their continued health, both because of their large feed 
consumption, especially grain feed, and because of the amount of 
chlorin that is daily removed in the milk. The general practice 
among dairy farmers is to supply about an ounce of salt daily per 
cow, placing it before them in the mangers or giving them access 
to salt in the yard. Unless milch cows have access to salt, abnormal 
conditions will soon appear which will result in a general break- 
down after a period varying with different cows from a month to 
more than a year. The gradual reduction in vitality of the animals 
which is brought about by a lack of salt, as shown by Babcock, is 
evidenced by " loss of appetite, a generally haggard appearance, 
lusterless eye, a rough coat, and a very rapid decline in both 
weight and yield of milk." 2 

Phosphate of Lime. — The mineral components present in the 
animal body in the largest quantities are lime and phosphoric acid. 
They make up the skeleton of the body and form about 80 per 

2 Wisconsin Report 22, p. 154, 



THE COMPOSITION OF ANIMALS 25 

cent of its entire ash content. In the case of suckling or young 
growing animals it is important that the feed shall contain a 
sufficient amount of lime and phosphoric acid. A deficiency of 
these components in the feed will give rise to serious disorders in 
the bone structure of the young, as is shown in the case of pigs fed 
wholly or largely on Indian corn (pp. 300-301). Under ordinary 
conditions, when mixed rations are fed, there is generally little dan- 
ger of not furnishing enough of these two ingredients. The matter 
should, however, receive attention in feeding pregnant or nursing 
animals, or young growing animals, and heavy feeding of materials 
low in calcium or phosphorus should be avoided. 

Among the feeds low in lime (calcium) may be mentioned: 
Straw and chaff, the cereals and their by-products, as gluten meal 
and shorts, malt sprouts, dried brewers' and distillers' grains, roots, 
and molasses. Feeds high in lime, on the other hand, are: Hay 
from grasses and legumes, and many leguminous seeds. Straw, 
distillery feeds, molasses, mangels, and potatoes are deficient in 
phosphoric acid, while the small grains, wheat bran, malt sprouts, 
brewers' grains, and oil meal, are high in phosphoric acid. If the 
rations fed are rather low in either or both of the ash materials 
mentioned, the deficiency may be made up by an addition to the 
feed of small amounts of bone meal, calcium phosphate or floats 
(ground phosphate rock). 

Potassium and Iron. — Of other essential mineral elements in 
the animal body, we shall mention only potassium, which is found 
especially in the cell walls, muscles, and blood ; and iron, mainly 
found in the red coloring matter of the blood (haemoglobin, p. 21). 
There is no danger that the rations fed farm stock will be deficient 
in these or other physiologically important elements, like fluorin 
and silicon, since only very small amounts of them are required 
and an ample supply is always present in the feeds. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the various groups of substances in the animal body and describe 

their main properties. 

2. How much water, fat, and protein are contained in the body of a calf, 

a lean and a fat steer, a fat sheep, and a fat hog? 

3. What is the composition of the increase in live weight during fattening? 

4. Name the different forms in which protein occurs in the animal body. 

5. What is haemoglobin? 

0. What are leucocytes, connective tissues, keratin? 

7. What protein substances are found in the milk? 

8. In what forms is fat found in the animal body? What are the lipoids? 

9. What are the main mineral substances found in the animal body? 

10. Give the office of common salt in the digestion of feeds and in animal 
nutrition. 



CHAPTER III 
THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 

The farm animals that chew their feed a second time are known 
as ruminants. Cattle, sheep, and goats belong to this class. The 
non-ruminants, on the other hand, are represented among the farm 
animals by the horse and the pig. The two kinds of animals differ 
radically in the anatomy of their digestive apparatus; the stomach 
of the ruminants consists of four divisions or sacs, of which the 
first three are mainly reservoirs for softening and holding the feed 
till it is returned to the mouth to be chewed again, while the fourth 
one is the true stomach, where a digestive fluid is secreted. The 
non-ruminating animals have only one stomach, into which the 
feed passes directly from the mouth and the gullet (oesophagus), 
and is acted upon by the digestive fluid secreted there. We shall 
consider separately the digestive apparatus of ruminants and non- 
ruminants. 

The digestive apparatus of ruminants consists, as already 
stated, of four separate compartments that are connected with one 
another, viz. : 

a. The rumen or paunch. 

b. The reticulum or honeycomb. 

c. The omasum or manyplies. 

d. The abomasum or the true stomach (Fig. 7). 

The first three stomachs are mainly enlargements of the ali- 
mentary canal and serve as reservoirs for the feed before it is 
chewed the second time. The rumen or paunch is by far the 
largest one of the four stomachs and, in the case of grown cattle, 
holds about nine-tenths of the total capacity of them all. The 
abomasum, or fourth stomach, corresponds to the single stomach 
of the non-ruminants, and, like this, contains a digestive fluid which 
acts upon the feed. When the cow swallows her feed, whicli is 
partly chewed and well mixed with saliva, it passes down the gullet 
and partly into the paunch through a slit in the gullet, partly into 
the second stomach (honeycomb). It remains here for a time 
and is softened by the saliva and the watery secretions of the 
paunch wall. The contents of the paunch are given a churning 
motion which gradually forces it toward the funnel-shaped orifice of 
the gullet through compression of the paunch by the diaphragm 
26 



THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 



27 



and the abdominal muscles. One portion of the softened mass is 
pressed at a time and conveyed into the mouth by a reverse, so- 
called peristaltic motion of the gullet. In the mouth it is chewed 
a second time and swallowed again. By the second chewing the 
cud or " bolus " is reduced to a pasty pulp, and it now passes 
directly through the oesophagus groove into the third stomach, the 
manyplies, without opening the slit in the gullet leading into the 
paunch. The manyplies has numerous hard, fleshy leaves, between 




Fig. 7. — The digestive apparatus of ruminants (a full-grown sheep): A, Rumen or 
paunch; B, reticulum or honeycomb; C, omasum or manyplies; D, abomasum or rennet 
stomach (fourth stomach); E, oesophagus or gullet, opening into first and second stomachs; 
F, opening of fourth stomach into small intestines; G, opening of second stomach into third; 
H, opening of third stomach into fourth. The lines indicate the course of the feed in the 
stomachs. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



which the soft mass is pressed, allowing the liquid portion to pass 
into the fourth stomach, and the balance of the mass is likewise 
gradually emptied into this stomach. 

The Non-ruminants. — In the case of the non-ruminating ani- 
mals the feed passes directly from the oesophagus into the single 
stomach. In the horse this has two compartments: The lining 
of the left one does not secrete any digestive fluid, but the action of 
the saliva swallowed with the feed is continued here, and the fer- 
ments found in the feed itself (e.g., in the case of oats) may also 



28 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

act on the starch. In the lining of the right side, on the other 
hand, there are numerous glands which secrete gastric juice, as in 
the case of the fourth stomach of ruminants. From this point on, 
the digestion of the feed takes place in essentially the same manner 
in non-ruminants as in ruminants. 

The Digestion of Feed. — The various digestive fluids which 
act on the feed during its passage through the body are (1) saliva, 
(2) gastric juice, (3) pancreatic juice and the bile, and (-4) 
intestinal juice. 

Saliva. — The first step in the digestion of feed occurs in the 
mouth. When an animal is eating, the feed is crushed and ground 
by the teeth, and at the same time mixed with saliva. This is a 
digestive fluid secreted by several glands located beneath or at the 
base of the tongue. The secretion of saliva is stimulated by the 
presence of feed in the mouth, and the saliva is intimately mixed 
with the feed in the process of mastication, especially in the case 
of coarse and dry feeds. 

This insalivation of the feed serves two purposes : First, it 
moistens and softens the feed so that it may be readily swallowed. 
Second, saliva contains a digestive ferment, called ptyalin, which 
acts upon the starch of the feed, changing it to suger (maltose, 
the same sugar as is found in malted barley). Saliva is an alkaline, 
viscous fluid which is secreted in immense quantities in the case of 
the large farm animals. A horse fed on hay has been found to 
secrete over 10 pounds of saliva per hour. Oats require a little 
more than their own weight of saliva, and dry, coarse feed requires 
four times its weight. As a horse or cow will consume at least 24 
pounds of dry feed in a day, it follows that the quantity of saliva 
secreted daily by these animals may reach or even go beyond 100 
pounds (over 12 gallons). 

The Gastric Juice. — The digestion of the protein substances of 
the feed is commenced in the true stomach (ahomasum) of the 
ruminants, or in the single stomach of the non-ruminants, where 
the feed comes into contact with the gastric juice, which is 
secreted here. This digestive fluid contains two ferments, pepsin 
and rennin, and also an appreciable quantity of free hydrochloric 
acid (about 0.5 per cent). Both rennin and pepsin have the 
faculty of coagulating the casein of milk, a wonderful provision of 
nature which insures that milk will remain in the stomach long 
enough to be acted upon by the stomach ferments, and its nutrients 
thus fully utilized by the animal. In young calves and other young 
ruminants the first three stomachs are not much developed, and 



THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 29 

the milk passes directly into the fourth stomach, where it is 
curdled by the rennin and subjected to the action of pepsin. The 
latter ferment acts only in an acid medium and on protein sub- 
stances, which it causes to break up into soluble compounds, known 
as proteoses and peptones. Since the ptyalin of the saliva acts 
only in an alkaline solution, its action on the starch of the feed 
is stopped when the feed reaches the fourth stomach and is mixed 
with the gastric juice. 

From the fourth stomach the feed passes through a valve, 
called the pylorus, into the small intestine. This is a long, tortuous 
tract, about 120 feet long in cattle, in which three different diges- 
tive fluids are secreted or emptied: The pancreatic juice, the bile, 
and the intestinal juice. 

The pancreatic juice is secreted by the large gland called pan- 
creas (or sweetbread) and is emptied into the small intestine near 
its upper end, through a duct leading from the pancreas. This 
digestive fluid contains three specific ferments: Trypsin, amylop- 
sin, and lipase. Trypsin converts protein into soluble compounds, 
mainly peptones, but also compounds of simpler molecular struc- 
ture than those resulting from pepsin digestion, viz., amino acids. 
Amylopsin changes starch into sugar, and lipase (formerly called 
steapsin) acts upon the fats, splitting these up into their com- 
ponent parts, free fatty acids and glycerin (see p. 23). 

The bile plays an important part in the digestion of fats. It is 
a strongly alkaline, yellowish-green digestive fluid secreted by the 
liver and stored in the gall-bladder attached to the same. The bile 
acts upon the fats of the feed that are still unchanged, emulsifying 
these; i.e., separating them into very minute drops or globules 
that may be either absorbed through the intestinal wall or readily 
acted upon by the fat-splitting ferment lipase of the pancreatic 
juice. It also aids in the absorption of the fatty acids. The bile 
contains a number of characteristic components whose importance in 
the digestion of feeds is not clearly understood, but it has several 
regulative and digestive functions besides those mentioned; it acts 
as a natural laxative and prevents an accumulation of waste ma- 
terials in the intestines, changing poisonous decomposition products 
of protein into harmless compounds that are excreted through the 
kidneys. 

The intestinal juice is secreted by numerous small glands in 
the mucous lining of the intestines, especially in the lower part of 
the tract. 



30 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

It contains three different ferments: (1) Erepsin, which acts upon the 
decomposition products of the proteins, albumose and peptones, in the 
same way as trypsin ; ( 2 ) an amylolytic ferment which converts starch 
to sugar (maltose), and (3) invertascs (sucrase, maltase, and lactase), 
changing the di-saccharides, cane-, malt-, and milk-sugar, into mono- 
saccharides (dextrose or glucose, see p. 14). 

From the small intestines the undigested material passes into 
the large intestine, where the formation of the solid excrements 
takes place. The ferments and bacteria, present here in immense 
numbers, continue their action until the mass has assumed the con- 
sistency peculiar to each species and is voided as faeces. 

Summarizing the various steps in the digestion of the different 
components of feed, we note that — 

Starch is changed into sugar (maltose) by the ptyalin of the 
saliva, the amylopsin of the pancreatic juice, and an amylolytic fer- 
ment in the intestinal juice. 

Fats are changed into free fatty acids and glycerin by the lipase 
of the pancreatic juice, and by the bile into emulsified fats or soaps. 

Proteins are changed into proteose and peptones by the pepsin of 
the gastric juice, and into amino bodies by the trypsin of the pan- 
creatic juice and the erepsin of the intestinal juice. 

In addition to the action of these various digestive ferments the 
feed is subjected to bacterial action in the paunch and the intes- 
tines. Through the fermentation processes caused by bacteria, the 
cellulose and considerable quantities of other carbohydrates are de- 
composed and converted into gaseous products, like marsh gas, 
carbon-dioxide, and free hydrogen, which are of no value to the ani- 
mals except incidentally through the heat generated in these proc- 
esses; this may be of benefit in aiding to maintain the body 
temperature of the animals. 

Digestion of Feed by Non-ruminants. — The digestion of feed 
by the non-ruminating farm animals takes place, as previously 
suggested, in much the same way as in the case of the ruminants. 

The same digestive fluids act on the feed of the horse and other 
animals of this class as in the case of the ruminants, viz., saliva, 
gastric juice, pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal juice. These 
differ from the corresponding fluids secreted by ruminants mainly 
in point of concentration. The protein compounds, are broken up 
into simple soluble substances, like peptones and amino acids; the 
starch is changed into maltose, and the fats into free fatty acids, 
emulsified fats, or soaps. The stomach of the horse has a capacity 
of 12 to 15 quarts, while the paunch of a cow or steer holds over 
100 quarts. The horses cannot, therefore, eat as much of bulky 



THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 31 

feeds at a time as cattle, nor can they digest coarse feeds containing 
considerable cellulose (fiber) so completely as the ruminants. 

To make up in a measure for its small stomach, the horse has a 
large sac, ccccum, which is about a yard long and corresponds to the 
vermiform appendix in man. The large intestine is also of con- 
siderable size and has several enlargements. The entire length of 
the alimentary canal of the horse is about twelve times the length of 
the body, that of the pig fourteen times, and that of cattle and sheep 
twenty times or more the length of the body. 

Absorption of Digested Materials. — The soluble materials and 
those that have been broken down into simpler, largely soluble com- 
pounds through the various processes of digestion are absorbed to 
some extent by the mucous membrane of the stomach, but for the 
most part pass through the walls of the intestines. The intestines 
are lined with innumerable fine projections called villi, inside of 
which are found microscopic branches of two systems of vessels, 
the capillaries of the blood-vessels, and the lacteals belonging to the 
so-called lymphatic system. The digested materials in the form of 
sugar, salts, soluble proteose and peptones, and similar compounds 
pass over into the capillaries by the process of osmosis. The capil- 
laries are exceedingly fine blood-vessels that converge to a large 
vein called the portal vein, through which the materials absorbed 
by the blood are taken into the liver. They are here distributed 
through a second set of capillaries and then reunited, passing into 
the hepatic vein which leads to the heart. 

The emulsified fats and free fatty acids, or combinations of 
these with alkali (soaps), on the other hand, are taken up by the 
lacteals in the villi of the intestines. From these they pass into 
the lymphatic system and are later emptied into the thoracic duct 
which leads to one of the large veins before this enters the heart. 

The nutrients thus taken into the blood circulation come into 
contact with the oxidizing agent of the blood, the oxyhemoglobin, 
and are either directly oxidized in the blood or carried to the body 
tissues to repair waste and supply materials for the formation of 
new tissues. Very likely, both these processes occur simultaneously. 
Some of the digested and assimilated nutrients, especially sugar 
and lactic acid, soon disappear from the blood through oxidation, 
and the carbon-dioxide and water formed in the process of oxidation 
are excreted through the lungs and skin. Other nutrients, like the 
mineral salts and soluble protein compounds, pass into circulation 
and are brought to the parts of the body where they are needed 
for building materials. In the passage through the intestinal wall 



32 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

the soluble protein compounds undergo chemical changes, appar- 
ently through the action of the living cell walls ; the peptones, which 
are abundant in the intestinal fluids, have disappeared in the blood, 
and in their stead we find more complex protein compounds from 
which the body is able to build its various protein tissues or fluids. 
In the same way the free fatty acids, and the soaps formed from 
these in the digestion of fats, are changed in their passage through 
the intestinal wall into neutral fats which enter the lacteals and 
pass into the circulation through the lymphatics. 

The carbohydrates of the feed, as we have seen, are changed to 
sugar in the process of digestion and enter the capillaries as such ; 
from these the sugar passes into the blood circulation and enters 
the liver, along with all other nutrients except the fats. In the 
liver the sugar is changed into a carbohydrate of the same composi- 
tion as starch, called glycogen or animal starch, and is deposited as 
such in the cells of the liver. By this provision an accumulation of 
sugar in the blood is prevented, and the body has a base of supply 
of a readily available and oxidizable carbohydrate which can be 
drawn upon as needed. The liver normally contains only about 2 
per cent of glycogen, but after heavy feeding with starchy feeds 
the content may rise as high as 10 per cent. Aside from furnishing 
material for the production of heat and muscular energy, glycogen 
may also serve as supply material for the formation of body fat and 
butter fat, in the case of fattening animals and milch cows, respec- 
tively. 

The fats may be stored between the muscular fibers or deposited 
as adipose tissue, or, in the case of females giving milk, may be 
changed into butter fat. We have seen that the muscular tissues of 
the body consist largely of protein substances, and that they are the 
form in which protein is stored in the animal body. This can take 
place only in the growing animal. In the case of an insufficient 
supply of feed the glycogen of the liver is first oxidized, then the 
fats, and, last of all, the body tissues. Oxidation of body tissues 
takes place in the animal cells so long as the animal is living. The 
final oxidation products of protein substances in the body are 
carbon-dioxide and water (as in the case of carbohydrates and fat), 
and, in addition, urea, which is excreted through the kidneys in 
the urine. As there are no gaseous nitrogenous decomposition 
products formed, and urea represents the most important and, 
practically speaking, the only nitrogenous decomposition product in 
the oxidation of protein substances in the body, it becomes a meas- 
ure of the protein decomposition in the body. By determining the 



THE DIGESTION OF FEEDS 33 

amount of urea excreted in the urine, say during a day, we are 
able to ascertain the amount of protein substances in the feed or 
of body tissues that have been decomposed during the day (see 
p. 44). 

Metabolism. — The chemical changes that occur within the body inci- 
dent to the exercise of vital functions and to growth are included under the 
general term metabolism. Metabolic processes in the animal body are of 
two kinds: Katabolic or destructive, those by which the food materials 
are broken into compounds of simpler structure, and anabolic or construc- 
tive, by which these simpler compounds are again built up into complex 
substances. The formation of peptones and amino acids from the proteins 
is a katabolic process, while the reverse change, the building up of these 
simpler compounds into body protein, albumen, globulin, etc., is a con- 
structive process. Both kinds of processes take place continuously in the 
living body, as we have seen; they are essential to life, and are discontinued 
only when life ceases. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the various groups of substances found in the animal body and 

state their main characteristics. 

2. Why is it necessary to give salt to farm animals? 

3. Name the various digestive fluids in the animal body, and state the 

changes which different components of feed undergo in the process of 
digestion. 

4. What is the difference between ruminants and non-ruminants? 

5. Name the American farm animals that belong to each group. 

G. Describe the difference between the digestive apparatus of ruminants and 

non-ruminants. 
7. Describe the process of absorption of the digested protein substances, 

carbohydrates and fat. 



CHAPTER IV 
USES OF FEED BY ANIMALS 

We have seen that the animals, through their various digestive 
fluids, are able to dissolve certain feed components from the feeding 
stuffs which they eat, and that these components are used for main- 
taining the vital functions of the animals, and for the production 
of work, meat, milk, wool, etc., in the case of different farm animals. 
When only sufficient feed is supplied to maintain the body weight 
of the animal, no production is possible, except in the case of 
milk-producing animals. Even when the supply of feed is not 
sufficient to prevent a loss of body weight, these animals will con- 
tinue to produce milk, and the interests of their young are thus 
safeguarded. But this is done at the expense of the flesh (or body 
fat) of the mother. Good milch cows with highly-developed dairy 
qualities will lose considerable weight under these conditions; this 
is especially apt to occur shortly after freshening, although a rather 
liberal supply of feed may be given, and it is often necessary to 
counteract this tendency to loss of flesh at this period by supplying 
special fattening feeds. 

Maintenance Requirements. — The amounts of feed required 
to maintain farm animals at an even body weight have been studied 
by a number of scientists since the middle of the last century, and 
the maintenance requirements of different classes of farm animals 
are now definitely known. This subject has both a theoretical and 
practical interest, and is of fundamental importance in the study 
of the uses of feed by animals, since about 50 per cent of the feed 
they eat is used for body maintenance. 

The earliest statements as to the maintenance requirements of 
farm animals came to us from Germany. Wolff's maintenance stand- 
ard for cattle, for instance, called for a supply in the feed of the fol- 
lowing digestible components: 0.7 pound protein, 8 pounds carbo- 
hydrates, and 0.1 pound fat per 1000 pounds body weight and per 
day. Later investigations by Sanborn, Caldwell, Haecker, and 
others showed, however, that this is a larger allowance than neces- 
sary. The Haecker maintenance standard for barren dry cows is 
now generally accepted; this calls for 0.7 pound protein, 7 pounds 
digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 pound digestible fat per 1000 
pounds body weight. 

Of late years the amount of chemical energy which different 
34 



USES OF FEED BY ANIMALS 



35 



feed components and feeding stuffs supply is generally taken to 
represent their value for feeding purposes, as will be shown pres- 
ently (p. 44). This has come largely through the studies of Stoh- 
mann, Rubner, and Kellner in Germany, and Armsby in this 
country. 

The maintenance rations for different animals per thousand 
pounds or one hundred pounds body weight formulated by Armsby 
are as follows i 1 





Armsby Standard Maintenance Rations 






Live weight 


Digestible true 
protein 


Energy value, 
therms 


Cattle 


1000 pounds 

1000 pounds 

100 pounds 

100 pounds 


0.50 pound 
1.00 pound 
0.10 pound 
0.10 pound 


6.0 


Horses 


7.0 


Sheep 


1.0 


Swine* 


1.12 







* Illinois Bulletin 103. The amount of digestible protein is crude, and not true protein 
(p. ID- 

The figures given for the amounts of digestible protein and 
energy values for maintaining swine at an even weight are derived 
from recent investigations by Professor Wm. Dietrich, formerly of 
the Illinois Experiment Station. 

There are a number of factors that influence the maintenance 
requirements of animals; among these may be mentioned: The 
muscular activity of the animals (whether standing or lying), 
temperament, external conditions tending to affect the degree of 
muscular activity, condition or amount of fat tissue carried, and 
external temperatures. 2 It is believed, however, that the feeding 
standards show with a considerable degree of accuracy the average 
amounts of digestible true protein and energy values required by 
the different classes of farm animals given for the maintenance of 
an even body weight. 

It is generally assumed that the maintenance requirements of animals 
are proportional to their live weights; i.e., a cow weighing 1200 pounds will 
require 50 per cent more feed for the maintenance of her body weight than 
an 800-pound cow. This is not correct, however, although sufficiently so for 
most practical purposes. The maintenance requirements increase with the 
surface of the animal, and this is approximately proportional to the squares 
of the cube-roots of the weights of similar animals. If a cow weighing 800 
pounds requires, say, 8 pounds of digestible nutrients for maintenance, a 
1200-pound cow would require 8 X V (~—) 2 or 10.48 pounds, and a 1600-pound 
cow, 12.7 pounds. 

1 Farmers' Bulletin 340. 

2 Pennsylvania Bulletin 111. 



36 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Uses of Feed. — It has been shown that the digested and assimi- 
lated feed is oxidized in the cells and tissues of the body; the 
chemical energy thus set free is utilized in one or more of three 
different ways : As kinetic energy, for the maintenance of the body 
heat, or as mechanical energy, for the production of internal work 
in the body of the animal or for mechanical labor (horses, mules, 
and oxen), or as chemical energy stored in the form of animal 
products. If the energy supplied in the feed is more than sufficient 
to cover the demands for the first two purposes given, the excess 
may be stored up in the body in the form of animal products, like 
meat, fat, milk, eggs, etc., which may later serve to supply energy 
to man or other animals when used in their feed. 

The functions of the different components of feed are, briefly 
stated, as follows: 

Protein. — Flesh-forming substances. Essential for the produc- 
tion of lean meat, muscles, skin, ligaments, horns, hair, wool, milk, 
etc. When present in excess in the feed, used for production of body 
fat or as fuel, to give warmth and energy. Of general value in 
stimulating nutritive processes in the body. 

Fats. — Furnish fuel to keep the animal warm and produce 
energy. Aid in the production of fatty tissue. For the produc- 
tion of heat, 2.25 times as valuable as carbohydrates. 

Carbohydrates. — Supply fuel to keep the animal warm and 
produce energy for muscular work. They are transformed into 
fats for the production of fatty tissue. 3 

Feed for Production. — The portion of the ration fed an animal 
over and above maintenance requirements is the productive part 
of the ration; the higher this can be increased up to the capacity 
of the animal for digestion and absorption of feed, the better are 
the returns obtained and the more economical is the production, 
so far as feed consumption is concerned. The amounts of nutrients 
required by the different farm animals for j)roductive purposes have 
been determined in similar ways as in the case of the maintenance 
standards. The first attempts to formulate general standards for 
farm animals were made by the German scientist Grouven in 1858. 
He gave the quantities of total dry substance, protein, and fat 
which an animal of a certain age would require daily in its feed 
ration. A somewhat later effort in this direction is represented by 
the standards proposed by Wolff, in which the amounts of digestible 
components required by different classes of farm animals under 
varying conditions are given. 

3 North Carolina Bulletin 106. 



USES OF FEED BY ANIMALS 



37 



Feeding Standards. — The Wolff standards were brought to the 
attention of American farmers in the seventies, and, mainly through 
the publication of Armsby's " Manual of Cattle Feeding," in 1880, 
they became quite generally known here as " the German feeding 
standards." They were modified in 1897 by Lehmann, another 
German scientist, and ten years later Kellner proposed a new set of 
standards, based on contents of digestible protein and " starch 
values " ; i.e., the amounts of different nutrients or feeds equivalent 
to one pound of starch for the production of body fat by mature 
fattening steers. These and similar standards suggested by Armsby 
are the latest contributions to this subject. In order that students 
may become familiar with the two methods of determining the 
requirements of different farm animals, we shall give in this book 
both sets of standards, known as the Wolff- Lehmann and the Armsby 
standards, based respectively upon digestible components of feeds 
and the digestible true protein and energy values, measured in 
therms. 4 

Wolff-Lehmann Standards. — The feed requirements for dif- 
ferent farm animals of average body weights, according to these 
standards, are as follows: 



Feed Requirements per WOO Pounds Live Weight. — Wolff-Lehmann 



Fattening steers, first period 

Milch cows, yielding 22 pounds 

milk daily 

Fattening sheep, first period 

Horses, medium work 

Fattening swine, first period 



Dry 
matter, 
pounds 




Digestible 


Protein, 
pounds 


Carbohy- 
drates, 
pounds 


Fat, 
pounds 


30 

29 
30 
24 
36 


2.5 

2.5 
3.0 
2.0 
4.5 


15.0 

13.0 
15.0 
11.0 
25.0 


.5 

.5 
.5 
.6 

.7 



Nutri- 
tive 
ratio, 1 : 



6.5 

5.7 
5.4 
6.2 
5.9 



As all the main feeding stuffs in this country, like corn and corn 
products, oats, mill feeds, oil meal, hay, etc., are relatively high in 
fat, there is no danger that the rations will not contain sufficient 
amounts of this component; it does not, therefore, call for special 
consideration, and has generally been merged with the carbohydrates 
in this book, according to its carbohydrate equivalent (by multiply- 
ing with 2.25, see p. 4G). Stated in this manner, the Wolff-Leh- 

4 One therm is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 
1000 kilograms of water 1 degree C. (see p. 45). 



38 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



mann standards become very simple and are as easily applied as any 
standard so far proposed for farm animals. 

The nutritive ratio of a feed (or a ration) is the proportion 
between the digestible protein and the sum of the digestible carbo- 
hydrates and fat contained therein. The fat is changed to its 
carbohydrate equivalent by multiplying with 2.25, because it has 
2.25 times as high heat value as similar amounts of carbohydrates. 
For example, the nutritive ratio is expressed as 1 : 6.5, meaning that 
there are 6.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates and fat combined 
for every pound of digestible protein. The nutritive ratio is cal- 
culated as follows, e.g., in the case of the first ratio given above : 

0.5 (digestible fat) X 2.25 = 1.13; 

15.0 (digestible carbohydrates) -f 1.13 (the carbohydrate equiv- 
alent of the digestible fat) = 16.13; 

16.13 -f- 2.5 (digestible protein) = 6.5. 

The nutritive ratio of the ration for milch cows given is figured 
in the same way, as follows : 
.5 X 2.25 = 1.13; 

13.0 +1.13 = 14.13; 

14.13 -f- 2.5 = 5.7; the nutritive ratio is, therefore, 1 : 5.7. 

The Armsby Standards. — The estimated feed requirements for 
different classes of farm animals according to Armsby are given in 
the following table; the figures show the amounts of digestible true 
protein and energy values, expressed in therms, that should be sup- 
plied daily to growing cattle and sheep at different ages. These 
figures in all cases include the maintenance requirements for the 
various animals. 5 



Estimated Feed Requirements per Day and per Head (including the Maintenance 
Requirements) . — Armsby. 





Growing cattle 


Growing sheep 


Age, 


Live 


Digestible 


Energy 


Live 


Digestible 


Energy 




weight, 


protein, 


values, 


weight, 


protein, 


values, 




pounds 


pounds 


therms 


pounds 


pounds 


therms 


3 


275 


1.10 


5.0 








6 


425 


1.30 


6.0 


70 


.30 


1.30 


9 








90 


.25 


1.40 


12 


650 


1.65 


7.0 


110 


.23 


1.40 


15 








130 


.23 


1.50 


18 


850 


1.70 


7.5 


145 


.22 


1.60 


24 


1000 


1.75 


8.0 








30 


1100 


1.65 


8.0 









5 Farmers' Bulletin 346. 



USES OF FEED BY ANIMALS 



39 



For fairly mature fattening animals (e.g., two- to three-year- 
old steers) 3.5 therms per pound of gain in live weight are believed 
to be sufficient, and a similar amount of digestible protein is 
recommended as in feeding for normal growth. 

Requirements for Milk Production. — For the production of a 
pound of average milk containing about 13 per cent solids and 4 
per cent fat, 0.05 pound of digestible protein and 0.3 therm of energy 
value are considered ample, milk rich in fat and in total solids re- 
quiring more nutriment than milk containing more water or a lower 
percentage of fat. Recent work by Haecker and by Eckles has fur- 
nished additional data on this point. The results obtained by 
these investigators are important contributions to the subject of 
feed requirements of dairy cows. The tentative statement of the 
requirements for the production of milk containing different per- 
centages of butter fat given by Eckles is as follows : 6 

Feed Requirements for Different Grades of Milk 



Per cent fat 
in milk 


Per pound of milk 


Digestible 
protein, pounds 


Energy values, 
therms 


3.0 
4.0 
5.0 
6.0 


.050 
.055 
.062 
.070 


.26 
.30 
.36 
.45 



The method of calculating rations according to the Wolff-Leh- 
mann and Armsby standards will be explained fully when the uses 
of nutrients by different animals and the various feeding stuffs 
available for farm animals have been discussed. 

QUESTIONS 



1. What do you understand by the maintenance requirements of animals? 

2. Give maintenance ration for a 1000-pound cow according to (a) the 

Wolff -Lehmann standard, ( b ) the Armsby standard. 

3. Give the feed requirements for fattening swine according to the Wolff- 

Lehmann standard. 

4. What is meant by nutritive ratio? Give an example. 

5. Show how the feed requirements for a dairy cow are calculated according 

to the Armsby standard. 

'Missouri Research Bulletin 7. 



CHAPTER V 

DETERMINATION OF THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF 
FEEDING STUFFS 

The nutritive value of different feeding stuffs may be determined 
by two different methods : First, by chemical analysis and digestion 
trials with farm animals; second, by trials with animals in a respira- 
tion apparatus or respiration calorimeter. The first method shows 
the proportions of the feeds that are dissolved in the digestive 
processes, while the second method furnishes direct information as 
to the nutritive effect of the feeds or rations and shows the uses 
which an animal makes of the feed eaten. 

Digestion Trials. — The digestibility of feeding stuffs is deter- 
mined in so-called digestion trials with animals. Numerous such 
trials have been conducted with ruminants during the past half- 
century in this country and abroad, and a number of trials have 
also been conducted with horses, pigs, and poultry. In these trials 
the animals experimented with are fed the feeding stuff whose 
digestibility is to be determined, for a period of about a week, and 
the solid excrements voided by the animal are then collected for 
another week. Samples of both the feed eaten and of the fa?ces are 
taken for chemical analysis, and by a comparison of the total 
amounts of feed components in each the proportion of each com- 
ponent retained or digested by the animal may be determined and 
calculated on a basis of percentage digestibility. An example will 
readily explain the method of calculation. 

In an experiment by the author, in which the digestibility of 
corn silage was to be determined, a cow was fed, on the average, 
55.0 pounds of silage per day; a small amount, 0.71 pound, was re- 
fused. She voided 58.8 pounds of dung daily during the trial. 
Chemical analyses were made of both the silage fed and that refused, 
as well as of the dung voided. The digestion coefficients for the 
silage were then calculated as shown below : 

Digestion Trial with Corn Silage 



1 


Dry 
matter, 
pounds 


Protein, 
pounds 


Fat, 
pounds 


Fiber, 
pounds 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract, 
pounds 


Ash, 
pounds 


In 54.3 pounds of silage . . 
In 58.8 pounds of dung. . 


20.55 
7.62 


1.52 

.68 

.84 
55.3 


.67 
.12 


4.25 
2.29 

1.96 
45.4 


13.23 
3.73 


.88 

.72 




12.93 
62.9 


.55 
82.1 


9.50 
71.8 


.16 


Digested in per cent 


18.2 



40 



NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 41 

The results show that the dry matter of the corn silage was 
found to he 02.9 per cent digestible, the protein 55.3 per cent, the 
fat 82.1 per cent; i.e., the digestion coefficients for the different com- 
ponents in the feed were as follows (leaving off fractions) : Dry 
matter, 63; protein, 55; fat, 82; fiber, 45; nitrogen-free extract, 
72, and ash, 18. 

If the digestion coefficients for the organic matter in silage is 
wanted, it is readily obtained by calculating the amount of this 
component in the feed and fasces, as follows: In silage, 20.55 (dry 
matter) minus 0.88 pound (ash) equals 19.67 pounds (organic 
matter) ; in fasces, 7.62 less 0.72 equals 6.90; 19.67 less 6.90 equals 
12.77; percentage digestible, 12.77 divided by 19.67 equals 64.4. 
It was found, therefore, that 64 per cent of the organic matter of 
the silage was digestible. 

In the case of feeding stuffs that cannot be fed alone (i.e., a grain 
feed for ruminants) it is necessary to feed it along with some feed 
of known digestibility that will supplement it so that when fed 
together they will make at least a fairly normal ration. The cal- 
culated amounts of digestible components in the second feed are 
then deducted from the total digestible amounts of the various 
components in the ration fed, and the difference is calculated on a 
percentage basis of the total amounts present in the feed whose 
digestibility was to be determined (Fig. 8). 

Interpretation of Results. — The figures obtained in digestion 
trials show the proportion of the components of the feed that have 
been dissolved by the digestive fluids of the body and retained for 
the uses of the animal. This is true only in a general way, for 
various factors render the matter much more complicated. There 
reappears in the dung not only the undigested matter of the feed, 
but small amounts of residues of the digestive juices, waste prod- 
ucts in the activity of the digestive organs, and intestinal mucus. 
A correction can be made, however, for the presence of these in the 
dung by determining the amounts of these waste products. This 
is done by means of artificial digestion of the dung with a pepsin- 
hydrochloric-acid solution (Kuhns method), and making proper 
deductions for these in the calculations. Another and more serious 
source of error is introduced by the fact that the feed is subjected 
to the action of bacteria and ferments in the paunch and intestines, 
through which gaseous products are formed, as previously stated 
(p. 30). These attack especially the fiber of plant materials, and 
the figures obtained for the digestibility of these components, there- 
fore, include a portion which has not been dissolved by the digestive 



42 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



fluids of the animals and taken into circulation. This portion 
does not contribute to the maintenance or the growth of the body, 
and is of value to the animal only in so far as the heat generated 
by the fermentation processes helps to maintain an even body 
temperature. In spite of these errors to which digestion trials 



COTTON-SEED MEAL 

LINSED MEAL 

SOYBEANS 

DRIED BREWERS' GRAINS 

GLUTEN EEED 

COW PEAS 

WHEAT BRAN 

ALFALFA HAY 

WHEAT MIDDLINGS 

RED CLOVER HAY 

0AT5 

RYE 

BARLEY 

INDIAN CORN 

DRIED BEET PULP 

TIMOTHY HAY 

CORN STALKS 

OAT STRAW 

SKIM MILK 

COWS' MILK 

PASTURE GRASS 

MANGELS 

RAPE 

TURNIPS 

CORN SILAGE 




■i 



90 NUTRITIVE RATIO 

I : 1.2 
1.5 
1.8 

Z.3 

2.4 

3.1 

4.0 

4.3 

4.6 

5.9 

6.2 

7.8 

8.0 

9.9 

11.9 

16.2 

23.6 

38.3 

2.0 

3,8 

4.5 

4.9 

4.3 

7.7 

120 



[PROTEIN 



CARBOHYDRATES AND EAT 



Fig. 8. — Digestible components and nutritive ratios of common feeds, in per cent. 

are subject, the results obtained by them are of the greatest value 
to both the feeder and the student of nutrition problems. Until 
the latter part of the last century, our theories of these problems 
and the science of animal nutrition rested almost wholly on the 
knowledge of the feeding stuffs gained through chemical analysis 
and digestion trials. 



NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 



43 



Coefficients of Digestibility. — The average digestion coeffi- 
cients for a number of important feeding stuffs are given in the 
following table. Complete compilations of digestion coefficients 
determined for American feeding stuffs will be found in several 
U. S. Department of Agriculture and State publications, as well 
as in standard reference books on the subject; these compilations 
also give the number of separate trials conducted and the number 
of animals experimented with in each case, as well as the variations 
in the results of the separate trials. 1 

Digestion Coefficients for Ruminants 



Pasture grass 

Green alfalfa 

Timothy hay 

Meadow hay , 

Indian corn fodder 

Corn stover 

Corn silage 

Corn meal 

Oats , 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Pea meal 

Linseed meal (old process) 

Cotton-seed meal 

Mangels 

Sugar beets 



Dry 

matter 


Protein 


Fat 


Fiber 


71 


70 


63 


76 


61 


74 


39 


43 


55 


48 


50 


50 


61 


57 


53 


60 


68 


55 


74 


65 


57 


36 


67 


64 


66 


50 


82 


64 


88 


66 


91 


— 


70 


77 


89 


31 


66 


77 


63 


41 


82 


88 


86 


36 


87 


83 


55 


26 


79 


89 


89 


57 


77 


83 


94 


35 


87 


70 


— 


37 


92 


72 


— 


34 



Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 



73 
72 
62 
64 
73 
59 
71 
92 
77 
71 
88 
94 
78 
78 
95 
97 



Respiration Studies. — The second method by which the nutri- 
tive effect of feeding stuffs may be studied is by respiration experi- 
ments, involving the use of either a respiration apparatus or a 
so-called respiration calorimeter. 

The Respiration Apparatus. — The first apparatus of this kind 
was constructed by Pettenkofer, the great Munich chemist. It 
consists of a large air-tight chamber, through which a measured 
current of air is maintained. The animal experimented with is 
kept in this chamber for a given period, 24 hours or longer. By 
weighings and analyses of the feed, water, and air taken in by the 
animal, as well as of the gaseous and solid products given off, 
the intake and outgo of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other ele- 

1 Bulletin 77, Office of Experiment Stations; Massachusetts Report, 
1912; Henry, " Feeds and Feeding," p. 574: Jordan, "The Feeding of Ani- 
mals," p. 427. 



44 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

ments from the body can be determined with great accuracy. The 
effect of a given ration on the nutritive processes in the animal 
body is thus ascertained, and it is possible to determine whether 
the animal lost or gained in flesh or body fat on the ration fed, 
and also the exact amount of the gain or loss. An example will 
illustrate how this information is obtained. 

A steer received daily the following amounts of nitrogen and 
carbohydrates in the feed, water, and air: 0.44 pound nitrogen and 
13.25 pounds carbon; he excreted in the urine, dung, vapor, and 
gases given off during the 24 hours 0.35 pound nitrogen and 12.10 
pounds carbon, or there remained in the body 0.09 pound nitrogen 
and 1.15 pounds carbon. 

Pure muscular tissue (lean meat) contains, on the average, 
16.67 per cent nitrogen and 52.54 per cent carbon. The addition 
of 0.09 pound nitrogen, therefore, equals 0.09 multiplied by 52.54, or 
0.54 pound of dry lean meat ; this amount contains 0.28 pound car- 
bon (0.54 pound multiplied by 52.54/100). The difference between 
this amount of carbon and that remaining in the body is 0.87 pound. 
As only very small amounts of other non-nitrogenous components 
than fat are found in the body, we are safe in assuming that the 
excess of the carbon was used for the formation of body fat; as 
this contains, on the average, 67.5 per cent carbon, the difference 
of 0.87 pound equals 1.14 pounds of fatty tissue which was added 
during the day. The steer gained 0.54 pound of dry lean meat and 
1.14 pounds body fat during the day. If the increase was 2.50 
pounds a day on the average throughout the experimental period, 
the difference, amounting to 0.82 pound, was composed of water 
and a small amount of mineral matter, both of which can be 
readily determined. 

Calorimetry. — The value of a feeding stuff for the nutrition of 
animals depends, to a large extent, on the amount of chemical 
energy that is set free when it is oxidized. This energy may be 
utilized for the production of body heat, work, or animal tissues. 
The burning of a material in a stove and the oxidation of the 
digested nutrients in the animal body are similar chemical proc- 
esses differing mainly in the intensity with which they run their 
course. In either case organic substances unite with the oxygen 
of the air or of the blood, respectively, and form carbon-dioxide and 
water (also urea in the case of protein substances oxidized in the 
body). The same amount of heat is given off whether the oxidation 
takes place in the body or outside of it. The heat evolved on com- 
bustion is a measure of the chemical energy which is stored up in 



NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 45 

the feeding stuff, and may be used by animals for maintenance and 
production.. 

Various units have been employed for measuring the heat of 
combustion. The common unit is a Calorie, which represents the 
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilo- 
gram of water one degree Centigrade, or that of a pound of water 
very nearly four degrees Fahrenheit. A therm, as proposed by 
Armsby, means 1000 Calories, the amount of heat required to raise 
the temperature of 1000 kilograms of water (or 2204.6 pounds) 
one degree Centigrade. This unit has been quite generally adopted 
of late and will be used in the following pages. 

The various components of feeding stuffs contain certain 
amounts of oxygen and are, therefore, partially oxidized. Carbo- 
hydrates thus contain about 50 per cent of oxygen, fats 10 to 12 per 
cent, protein 22 per cent (pp. 9, 12, 14) . The amount of heat evolved 
in the combustion of any organic material depends on the propor- 
tion of oxygen it requires for complete oxidation of the carbon, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and other chemical elements contained therein. 
This amount can be calculated in the case of substances of known 
composition, and directly determined in a so-called calorimeter. 

The Calorimeter. — This apparatus consists of a well-insulated, 
double-walled compartment, into which a platinum shell or bomb 
is introduced and submerged in water. A weighed small amount 
of the substance whose heat of combustion is to be determined is 
introduced into this shell with compressed oxygen, and ignited 
by means of an electric spark. By noting the rise in temperature 
in the surrounding water the amount of heat given off by the sub- 
stance on complete combustion can be calculated. 

Chemical Energy. — It has been found by direct experiments 
that the chemical energy of different classes of nutrients and feed- 
ing stuffs is as follows : 

Chemical Energy in 100 Pounds, in Therms 
Pure nutrients 
Protein : Carbohydrates : 

Wheat gluten 272 Starch, cellulose 190 

Gliadin. serum albumen . . . 268 Glucose 170 

Egg albumen, pure lean Sucrose, lactose, maltose. . 179 

meat 259 Fats : 

Blood fibrin 256 Steers and swine 425 

Sheep 427 

Corn oil 421 

Common feeding stuffs 

Flaxseed meal 267 Alfalfa hay, mixed hay and 

Linseed oil meal 194 oat straw 173 

Corn meal 171 Rice meal 170 



46 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



The figures given in the table show the amounts of chemical 
energy (in therm units) which are set free when 100 pounds of 
different pure nutrients and common feeding stuffs are completely 
burned. We note that the figures range for protein from 256 to 
272 therms, for carbohydrates from 170 to 190, and for fats from 
421 to 427, while those for feeding stuffs vary from 170 (rice 
meal) to 267 (flaxseed meal). Fats yield about 2.25 times as much 
energy on combustion as starch, and this factor has been commonly 




Fig 9 —A view of the respiration calorimeter at the Pennsylvania Experiment Sta- 
tion. The calorimeter chamber in which the animal on the experiment is kept, to trie leit. 
(Armsby.) 

adopted for the heat-producing value of fats as compared with that 
of starch and of carbohydrates in general. 

The figures given represent the total potential energy that is 
locked up in the materials, but they do not show the energy that is 
available to animals fed the different feeding stuffs or nutrients. 
The reason for this is three-fold : 

First, feeding stuffs are never completely digested by animals, 
as has been shown ; only the digestible portions furnish energy for 
physiological uses: the rest is inert matter, passing through the 
animals and of no direct value to them, except possibly in regulat- 



NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 47 

ing the bowels. The less digestible matter iu a feed, the lower is, 
therefore, its value to animals. 

Second, there are certain losses through fermentations in the 
paunch and intestines which result in the evolution of incompletely 
oxidized gases that escape from the alimentary tract (p. 30). 

Third, incompletely oxidized protein substances are excreted as 
urea, and the fuel value which they represent is, therefore, of no 
value to animals. The total energy less that lost through these 
three sources furnishes the available energy, or so-called fuel value 
of the feed. This may be determined by means of the respiration 
apparatus, or its improved form, the respiration calorimeter. 

The Respiration Calorimeter. — The Pettenkofer respiration ap- 
paratus was greatly improved by Atwater and Rosa by making the 
respiration chamber into a calorimeter. The original apparatus 
built at Wesleyan University, Connecticut, has been further modi- 
fied by Armsby and associates at the Pennsylvania station, where 
an apparatus was built in 1898 by the Pennsylvania station, in 
cooperation with the U. S. Department of Agriculture. This appa- 
ratus is sufficiently large to allow of investigations with mature 
cattle, and it is possible to continue the experiments for a con- 
siderable length of time, if desired (Fig. 9). 

" The apparatus consists of a Pettenkofer respiration apparatus pro- 
vided with special devices for the accurate measurement, sampling, and 
analysis of the air-current. A current of cold water is led through copper- 
absorbing pipes near the top of the respiration chamber and takes up the 
heat given off by the subject. The volume of water used being measured, 
and its temperature when entering and leaving being taken at frequent 
intervals, the amount of heat brought out in the water-current is readily 
calculated. To this is added the latent heat of the water-vapor brought out 
in the ventilating air-current. By means of ingenious electrical devices, 
. . . the temperature of the interior of the apparatus is kept constant, and 
any loss of heat by radiation through the walls or in the air-current is 
prevented." 2 

Trials with this apparatus have been conducted since about 
1901, and the results have greatly enlarged our knowledge of nutri- 
tive processes and the value of different feeding stuffs. The con- 
duct of such trials involves an immense amount of chemical work 
and calculations; during the actual experiments alone the services 
of at least seven men are required, exclusive of the assistants in 
charge of the feeding and collection of excreta. 3 

2 Armsby, " Principles of Animal Nutrition," p. 248. 

8 For a description of the Pennsylvania respiration calorimeter, see 
U. S. Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1910, pp. 307 to 318; Ex- 
periment Station Record, vol. 15, p. 1037. 



48 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



By means of the respiration calorimeter the amount of heat 
produced by the oxidation of the digested nutrients in the animal 
body is determined. The distribution of the losses of energy to 
the animal in the dung, urine, and marsh gas, as well as the net 
energy contained in the different feeding stuffs, is also shown by 
the results obtained in trials with this apparatus. 

The following table shows the distribution in therm units in 
the case of three common feeds, as determined by Armsby : 



Energy in Different Feeding Stuffs per 100 Pounds, in Therms 



Clover hay 



Total energy 

Losses in dung. .73.6 
Losses in urine. .11.5 
Losses in marsh 
gas 12.3 

Total losses 

Available energy, balance 
Available in per cent 



172.1 



97.4 
74.7 
43 



Corn meal 



15.7 
6.5 

15.9 



170.9 



38.1 
132.8 
78 



Wheat straw 



93.9 
4.3 

15.5 



171.4 



113.7 
57.7 
34 



We note that, while clover hay and corn meal contain nearly 
the same amount of total energy, only 43 per cent of this is avail- 
able to animals in the case of clover hay, against 78 per cent in the 
case of corn meal. 

Available Energy. — -These figures and others similarly obtained 
do not, however, tell the whole story. Clover hay and other rough 
feeds are bulky and call for a large amount of work in mastication 
and moving it through the alimentary canal, and also necessitate 
the secretion of larger amounts of digestive fluids than do corn 
meal and other concentrates. The energy required for these pur- 
poses is likewise lost to the animal, so far as production or work is 
concerned, and can be provided only through that supplied in the 
feed. The balance, which is known as net available energy or net 
energy, represents that available to animals for maintaining the 
vital functions or for productive purposes. 

The results obtained in respiration experiments with steers show 
that a larger percentage of the energy value of concentrated feeds 
is available for maintenance or for production than in the case of the 
rough feeds. In the poorest of these, as wheat straw, only small 



NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 49 

amounts of the energy value are obtained for productive purposes. 
Animals that have to subsist on only such feeds for any length of 
time will lose flesh, since there is not a sufficient amount of energy 
left to meet the needs of the body after that required for the diges- 
tion of the feed is taken out. 

The weak point in the old system of basing the nutritive values 
of different feeding stuffs on their contents of total digestible 
components is that it does not take into account the differences in 
the amount of energy required for the work of digestion and assimi- 
lation of feeds of different kinds. Where this work does not differ 
greatly, however, as between different feeds of the same kind, 
either green feeds, dry roughage, or concentrates, the error intro- 
duced is not, generally speaking, of much importance. The im- 
mense amount of work done in the study of the composition and 
digestibility of different feeding stuffs makes the data obtained 
along these lines most valuable and fully justifies their continued 
use in practice and for the study of the comparative value of feed- 
ing stuffs. 

Kellner's Starch Values. — The system of comparison of dif- 
ferent feeding stuffs elaborated during the early part of the century 
by the German agricultural chemist, Kellner, is based on the re- 
sults of extensive feeding respiration trials with mature fattening 
steers. Kellner fed such steers basal rations barely sufficient to 
maintain the animals at an even body weight, and added to these 
either pure nutrients, like starch, sugar, oil, etc., fed separately 
or combined, or different feeding stuffs whose nutritive effect was 
studied. He thus found that one pound of digestible components 
was capable of producing the following amounts of body fat : 

1 pound pure starch or digestible fiber, 0.24S pound body fat. 

1 pound sucrose, 0.188 pound body fat. 

1 pound protein, 0.235 pound body fat. 

1 pound fat or oil, 0.474 to 0.598 pound, according to its c-igin. 

A large number of trials were made to determine whether the 
digestible components of ordinary feeding stuffs gave similar re- 
sults as corresponding amounts of the various groups of nutrients 
fed in pure form. In the case of a number of feeding stuffs this 
was actually found to hold true; e.g., for many oil meals, corn, 
rice polish, red dog flour, potatoes, buckwheat middlings, and ani- 
mal feeds. With most feeds, however, the amount of fat which 
4 



50 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

they produced fell considerably short of what the same amounts of 
digestible components contained therein would have produced, if 
fed separately. 

In the case of these feeds the work of mastication and digestion 
reduced their nutritive effect, and they were given lower valuation 
numbers as a result. The following method of comparison of the 
production values of feeding stuffs was accordingly adopted by 
Kellner. The starch values were determined on a basis of the 
amount of fat produced by the different digestible components, viz. : 

1 part digestible protein, 0.94 starch value. 

1 part digestible fat from oil-bearing seeds and oil meals, 2.41 
starch value, 
from cereals and their by-products, 2.12 starch value, 
from hay and straw, roots and their by-products, 1.91 starch 
value. 
1 part digestible carbohydrates and fiber, 1.0 starch value. 

If the nutrients of the particular feed can be regarded as of full 
value, it is only necessary to add starch values of the three groups 
of nutrients as shown above, which gives the total starch values of 
the feed. If they were given lower values, the total valuation ob- 
tained according to the preceding equivalent figures is reduced 
by the respective valuation values. 4 The starch values thus obtained 
have been calculated for all kinds of European feeding stuffs, and 
are published in standard German reference books. The starch or 
" production values " for American feeding stuffs which have been 
published by Armsby are given in the Appendix. 

Kellner also formulated feeding standards for the various classes 
of farm animals, which give the amounts of dry matter, digestible 
true protein, and starch equivalents required for maintenance and 
production in each case. These follow rather closely the Wolff- 
Lehmann standards, except for the introduction of the starch 
equivalents. 

Critique of the Starch Values. — The Kellner starch values 
and standards are the latest contributions to our knowledge of the 
relative values of feeding stuffs and the feed requirements of farm 
animals. They have been accepted by some European writers and 
students of animal nutrition, while others, and good authorities 
among them, consider that we are not, at the present stage of our 
knowledge, warranted in applying the data obtained to other 

* The valuation figures for the various feeding stuffs are given in 
Kellner's two books, " Erniihrung d. Landw. Nutztiere " and " Fiitterungs- 
lehre," and in the English translation of the latter book, " The Scientific 
Feeding of Animals " (London, 1909). 



NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 51 

classes of farm animals than steers, 5 nor indeed to other conditions 
of fattening steers than where these are fed moderate rations, at 
the early stage of the fattening period. 6 

The starch values very likely furnish substantially correct in- 
formation for the study of rations and the feed requirements for 
fattening cattle, and may be safely adopted for this purpose. They 
are less reliable for growing animals and, especially, for milch cows, 
and due credit is not given to high-protein feeds and rations when 
these values are applied to the feeding of these animals. 

A comparison of the figures, e.g., for Indian corn (starch value, 
88.8 therms), 7 oil meal (78.9), pea meal (71.8), dried brewers' 
grains (60.0), wheat bran (48.2), and malt sprouts (46.3), will 
at once show that the figures do not express the true relative nutritive 
values of these feeds for the purposes stated. The explanation of 
the apparent discrepancies very likely is to be sought in the fact 
that in case of milk-producing and growing animals the protein of 
the feed possesses a higher value than for fattening. In the latter 
case the animal utilizes only the difference between the total energy 
of the digestible protein and that of the solids in the urine, while 
in the former a considerable proportion of the protein is changed 
directly into milk and flesh proteins. Instead of calculating the 
starch values on the basis of one pound protein equals 0.94 starch 
value, it has been proposed by Hansson 8 to allow the full energy 
value of protein, viz., 1.43 ; this method appears to make the starch 
value system applicable also to milch cows. 

The Kellner- Armsby 's standards for feeding farm animals are 
given in Part III, under the respective classes of animals. 

5 Zuntz, Mo. Bulletin International Institute of Agriculture, v 
(1914), No. 4, p. 440; Landw. Jahrb., 44, p. 701; Pott, " Handb. tier. 
Ermihrung," vol. 3, ii, p. iv. The following quotation from Farmers' 
Bulletin 340 by Armsby is also of interest in this connection : " The 
Kellner production values . . . show primarily the value of these different 
feeding stuffs for the production of gain in mature fattening cattle. Even 
for this purpose many of them are confessedly approximate estimates, and 
still less can they be regarded as strictly accurate for other kinds of animals 
and other purposes of feeding. Nevertheless, there seems to be reason 
for believing that they also represent fairly well the relative values of 
feeding stuffs for sheep at least, and probably for horses, and for 
growth and milk production as well as for fattening. ... As regards 
swine, the matter is far less certain, and it may perhaps be questioned 
whether the values given in the table are any more satisfactory for this 
animal than the older ones." See also Armsby, Cycl. Amer. Agr., vol. iii, 
p. 07, and Murray, " Chemistry of Cattle 'Feeding and Dairying," p. 222. 

Wood and Yule, Journal Agr. Science, v, 1914, p. 248. 

T Table IV in Appendix. 

8 Centralanst. Ber., Stockholm, No. 85. 



52 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give an outline of the method of conducting digestion trials. 

2. What is a coefficient of digestibility? 

3. Describe the respiration apparatus. 

4. How is a gain in muscular tissue and in body fat in the animal body 

determined ? 

5. What is a Calorie? A therm? 

6. Describe a calorimeter. 

7. Describe the respiration calorimeter. 

8. What is meant by the potential energy of a feeding stuff? 

9. What is the difference between potential and available energy? 

10. Why are coarse feeds less valuable to farm animals than concentrates? 

11. What are energy values, and how have they been obtained? 

12. For which class of farm animals are the energy values especially 

applicable, and what are the weak points in applying these to other 
classes of farm animals? 



CHAPTER VI 

VARIATIONS IN THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 
FEEDING STUFFS 

We have seen that plants manufacture more or less complex 
organic substances and ash materials from carbon-dioxide, water, 
and mineral components, and that the energy thus stored up in the 
plants is utilized by the animals feeding on these materials. Differ- 
ent plants vary considerably in the amount of energy that they 
supply, and the same plants vary according to their stage of growth 
and other conditions. The main factors that influence the chemical 
composition of plants will be considered in the following pages. 

The soil is an important factor in determining the quality as 
well as the yield of the crops grown ; in a fertile soil, plants reach 
their highest development, and maximum crops are secured. It 
is possible to modify appreciably the percentage of different plant 
constituents by special fertilization; an increase in the protein 
content, e.g., may be secured by applications of a general fertilizer 
that is high in nitrogen. By increasing the nitrogen content of the 
soil in this manner the percentage of protein in barley was increased 
from 13.77 to over 19 per cent. German scientists found the protein 
content of wheat grown on different kinds of soil as follows: On 
unfertilized soil, 16.25 per cent; fertilized with nitrogen, 21.43 per 
cent, and fertilized with nitrogen and phosphoric acid, 22.37 
per cent. Differences are likely to occur in the composition of the 
whole plant as well as, to a smaller extent, in the kernels, and it is 
therefore as important for the stockman as for the general farmer 
to adopt a good system of crop rotation that will secure the best 
possible growing conditions for the different crops. Plants grown 
in a soil rich in lime or phosphoric acid will contain a higher per- 
centage of these constituents than those grown in a poor soil, and 
will, therefore, be of superior value for feeding milk-producing 
and growing animals, which require a liberal supply of these mineral 
constituents. 

Climatic Environment. — It would be wrong to assume, how- 
ever, that the soil exerts the chief influence in determining the 
physical properties or the chemical composition of a crop. In a 
study of the influence of environment on wheat, which was continued 

53 



54 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

for a series of years, LeClerc found that the climatic environment 
(i.e., temperature, rainfall, and sunlight) is the most important 
factor that influences the physical and chemical characteristics of 
a crop, 1 and the results obtained by Wiley with sugar, beets and 
sweet corn lead to the same conclusion. 2 

The length of the growing periods of plants is another factor 
that influences the quality of the crop grown. Spring grains are 
higher in protein and lower in starch than winter grains, because 
their growing period is shortened by the higher average temperature 
during the summer. Plants grown in the South are richer in 
protein than northern-grown plants, for the same reasons. 3 

The Variety and Quality of Seed. — The sowing time and the 
method of seeding or planting are other factors that have a bearing 
on the quality of the crops grown. The stage of development when 
a crop is harvested is another factor that influences profoundly both 
the crop yields secured and their chemical composition and feeding 
value. We select as illustrations data obtained with two of the 
most important single fodder crops in our country, Indian corn 
and alfalfa. 

Indian Corn. — Like all other plants, Indian corn is higher in 
water, ash, protein, amides, and fat, and lower in starch and fiber, 
during early vegetative stages than later during the growing period. 
In experiments conducted by Hornberger, a field of Indian corn 
was sampled and analyzed once every week, from June 18, when 
the plants were only six to seven inches high, until September 10, 
when the corn was nearly ripe. The results of the analyses show 
that the water contents of the samples decreased with the advance 
of the growing period from 90.3 per cent to 80.5 per cent, and 
that the ranges in composition of the dry matter were as follows : 

Ash from 9.5 to 4.3 per cent. 
Protein from 30.8 to 9.7 per cent. 
Amides from 9.8 to 2.8 per cent. 

Fiber from 17.8 to 22.6 per cent (with a maximum of over 26 per cent, 
August 6 to 13). 

Nitrogen-free extract from 41.7 to 61.5 per cent. 
Fat from 3.2 to 1.6 per cent. 

Considering the total yields of feed components on the different 
dates, the following results are worthy of special note : 4 

1 Journal Agricultural Research, i, p. 275. 

2 Bulletins 96 and 127, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture. See also Shaw, " Studies upon the Influences Affecting the Protein 
Content of Wheat," Univ. of Cal. Pub. in Agricultural Sciences, No. 5. 

3 Haselhoff, " Landw. Futtermittel," p. 13. 

4 See Woll, " A Book on Silage," Rev. Ed., p. 14. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



55 



Yield of Ingredients in Corn Plants, in Grams* 







Green 
weight 
of one 
plant 


Dry 

matter 


1000 plants contained 


Date 


Ash 


Crude 
protein 


Fiber 


Sugar, 

starch, 

etc. 


Crude 
fat 


Amides 


June 25. 

July 2. 

9. 

16. 

23. 

30. 
August 6 . 

13. 

20. 

27. 
September 3 . 

10. 




5 

21 

39 

78 

161 

276 

468 

565 

591 

eii 


0.5 
2.1 
4.1 
8.3 

18.8 
32.8 
55.0 
67.4 
82.6 
108.7 
121.2 
119.4, 


43 

161 

342 

674 

1190 

1978 

3069 

3576 

3991 

5131 

5215 

5120 


142 

566 

1020 

1898 

3249 

4972 

7215 

8192 

8848 

11369 

12218 

11554 


90 

438 

933 

1896 

4581 

8194 

14420 

17«92 

21164 

27394 

28311 

27023 


210 

847 

1681 

3585 

9301 

16884 

29266 

36746 

47357 

63232 

73247 

73473 


16 

63 

94 

187 

380 

679 

851 

865 

974 

1143 

1729 

1906 


41 

186 

385 

677 

. 1136 

1727 

27 SO 

2735 

3369 

4970 

4722 

3245 



* 1000 grams equal 2.2 pounds avoirdupois. 

Similar results were obtained at Geneva (1ST. Y.), Maine, and 
other stations in studies of the development of the corn plant from 
•tasselling to maturity. 5 

Chemical Changes in the Corn Crop toward Maturity 



Yield per acre 


Tasselled 


Silked 


Milk 


Glazed 


Ripe 


Gross weight, tons 

Dry matter, pounds 

Ash, pounds 

Crude protein, pounds . . . 

Fiber, pounds 

Nitrogen-free extract, 


9.0 

1619 

139 

240 

514 

654 

72 


12.9 

3078 
201 
437 
873 

1399 
168 


16.3 
4643 

232 

479 
1262 

2441 
229 


16.1 
7202 

303 

644 
1756 

4240 
260 


14.2 

7918 

364 

678 
1734 

4828 
314 



The data given in the table show how rapidly the yields of feed 
materials increase with the advancing age of the corn plant and also 
how the increase during the latter stages of growth comes mainly 
on the nitrogen-free extract (largely starch). Between tasselling 
and maturity the corn plant will increase an average of about 200 
per cent in dry matter and toward 300 per cent in carbohydrate 
content, according to the results of experiments conducted at five 
different stations. The largest amounts of feed materials in the corn 
crop are not obtained until the corn is well ripened; when the 
plants have reached their total growth in height they contain only 
one-third to one-half of the weight of dry matter which they will 
gain if left to mature. 



5 Geneva, N. Y., Report, 1899; Maine Report, 1895. 



56 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



The preceding remarks refer to total feed components in the 
corn plant, and not to its digestible components. Digestion trials 
trials have shown that the digestibility of plants in general decreases 
as they grow older. The following table of results obtained in 
American trials will show the average digestion coefficients of 
green dent corn fodder cut at different stages of growth : ° 

Digestion Coefficients for Green Dent Fodder Corn 



Stage of growth 


No. of 
trials 


Dry 

matter 


Crude 
protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Fat 


Immature 

In milk 

Glazing 

Mature 


14 

17 

9 

23 


68 
70 
67 
69 


66 
62 
54 
54 


65 

• 64 

51 

59 


71 

77 
75 
75 


86 

76 

78 
75 



While there was no material change in the digestibility of the 
dry matter of the corn, a marked decrease is noticeable in the digesti- 
bility of the crude protein, fiber, and fat with the greater maturity 
of the fodder. The digestibility of the nitrogen-free extract, on the 
other hand, remains nearly stationary at the different stages of the 
growth, and the main increase in feed components falls on this 
constituent. In general, the decrease in the digestibility of the 
feed components given is not sufficiently high to affect the large 
increase in the yield of the components with the advancing age of 
the plant, so that the yields of total digestible components will be 
greater at maturity or directly before that time than at any earlier 
stage of growth. Hence we find that the general practice of 
cutting corn for forage or for the silo at the time when it is in the 
roasting-ear stage or beginning to harden is in accord with our 
best knowledge of the subject. 

Alfalfa. — The changes in the composition of alfalfa during its 
growing period have been studied by several stations. The average 
results obtained for three cuttings at the Ontario Agricultural Col- 
lege are given below. 

Composition of Alfalfa Cut at Different Stages of Growth, in Per Cent 





Moisture 


Composition of water-free substance 




Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Fat 


Amides 


Buds forming . . . 
Medium bloom . 
Full bloom 


81.53 
78.48 
74.50 


11.63 
9.60 
8.35 


18.46 
15.44 
13.12 


27.56 
33.58 
37.64 


39.36 
39.08 
39.36 


3.06 
2.40 
1.94 


4.09 
2.23 
1.86 



Compilation by Lindsey and Smith, Massachusetts Report, 1911. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



57 



The results show a decrease in the percentage of water and, 
therefore, in the succulence of the crop. In order to show the 
changes in chemical composition, the analyses have been calculated 
to water-free substance, and it is seen that as the plant matures the 
percentages of ash, crude protein, amides, and fat. decrease; as 
the stems grow hard and woody, the fiber contents of the plant in- 
crease, and the percentages of valuable feed components decrease in 
proportion, except that of nitrogen-free extract, which does not 
change materially. If we now consider the digestibility of the dif- 
ferent cuttings of alfalfa, we have the following average figures 
obtained in digestion experiments conducted at Ontario Agricul- 
tural College : 7 

Digestion Coefficients for Alfalfa 





Dry 

matter 


Crude 
protein 


Fat 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Fiber 


First cutting 


59 
56 
51 


73 
73 
64 


49 
50 
44 


72 
70 
64 


39 


Second cutting 


38 


Third cutting 


37 







There is a decided decrease in the digestibility of the total dry 
matter and of all components as the plant approaches maturity ; the 
decrease is especially marked between the second and third cuttings. 
If the total digestible matter obtained in the three crops be calcu- 
lated on the basis of the figures just given, it will be found that 
the amounts of digestible matter secured in the latter cuttings are 
considerably lower than those found in the preceding ones. In the 
Canadian experiments referred to, the three cuttings gave, on the 
average, the amounts of green alfalfa and digestible matter shown 
in the table : 

Calculated Yields of Dry Matter and Digestible Matter of Green 
Alfalfa Per Acre in Pounds 





Green 
alfalfa 


Total dry 
matter 


Digestible 
matter 


First cutting 


14075 
14513 
12363 


2714 
3525 
3142 


1590 
1978 
1611 


Second cutting 

Third cutting 





There was a decrease of 18.8 per cent, or nearly one-fifth, of the 
digestible matter during the two weeks' interval between the last 
two cuttings, calculated on the yields of the second cutting. 

7 Report, 1899, p. 27. 



58 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

The largest amount of digestible matter was obtained at the 
time of the second cutting in these trials, when the growing crop 
was about one-third in bloom. It is generally recommended to cut 
alfalfa at this stage of growth, or when between one-tenth to one- 
third of the plants are in bloom. It will be found, on examination, 
that new shoots are coming up from the crown of the roots at this 
time. The cutting should not be delayed until these are sufficiently 
high to be injured, as the yield of the next crop would be greatly 
reduced thereby. The exact time to begin cutting alfalfa will 
naturally vary somewhat according to the area to be cut, the 
weather, and other conditions. The difficulty of making a good 
quality of hay from alfalfa that is past bloom, and the large losses 
of leaves in this case, render it important not to delay the cutting 
beyond the time stated above. 

Hay Crops. — The changes in the chemical composition of the 
hay crops during the growing season, in so far as they have been 
studied, appear to be similar to those of alfalfa, and show that 
these increase in fiber as the plants grow older, and that the nitro- 
gen-free extract changes but little, with the other components de- 
creasing to a considerable extent. 8 In the case of Indian corn, on 
the other hand, like all grain crops as well as roots and tubers, so 
far as is known, the highest yield of feed materials is obtained at 
maturity. 

While the best time of cutting hay will vary somewhat according 
to the use for which it is intended, we note that early-cut hay has, 
in general, a higher feeding value, ton for ton, than late-cut hay; 
it is better, therefore, to cut too early than to delay the cutting 
until past bloom. Practical experience has also shown that the 
best time for cutting hay is, in general, shortly before bloom or 
during the early bloom. When the hay is intended for horses or 
fattening cattle, later cutting may be practised, since these animals 
relish late-cut hay and are fed hay more for the filling and less 
for the nutriment it supplies than is the case with dairy cows, 
young stock, and sheep. 

The method of harvesting or preparation of feeding stuffs, 
furthermore, affects their chemical composition and value. Dried 
green grass and carefully cured hay have been found to have a 
similar value as an equivalent of fresh green grass ; the only appre- 
ciable difference in chemical composition comes from the water 
content of the three materials. Under ordinary practical conditions, 
certain losses from leaves and tender stems in hay-making cannot, 



8 Fraps, " Principles of Agricultural Chemistry," p. 381. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



59 



however, be entirely avoided ; these losses are especially important 
in the case of leguminous crops, notably alfalfa. The leaves make 
up about one-half of the weight of the alfalfa plant, and carry 
four-fifths of the crude protein, over one-half of the starchy com- 
ponents, and only about one-fourth of the fiber of the entire plant. 
Headden, of the Colorado station, 9 concludes from his studies 
of the alfalfa plant, " that the minimum loss from the falling of 
leaves and stems in successful hay-making amounts to from 15 to 
20 per cent, and, in case where the conditions have been unfavorable, 
to as much as 60 per cent or even 66 per cent of the dry crop. For 
each 1700 pounds of hay taken off the field at least 300 pounds 
of leaves and small stems are left, and in very bad cases as much as 
1200 pounds may be left for each 800 pounds taken." These are 
lost for feeding purposes, but are returned to the soil, whose supply 
of humus and valuable fertilizer ingredients they increase, and thus 
improve its crop-producing power. 

When hay is exposed to rain or to sultry weather, important 
losses occur through leaching and fermentations. The Colorado 
station made analyses of samples of alfalfa hay exposed to rainy 
and damp weather for 15 days after cutting, during which time 
1.76 inches of rain fell in three showers. Comparing the composi- 
tion of this hay with that of hay from the same field cut the same 
day but immediately dried in an air-bath, the results shown in the 
following table were obtained : 



Percentage Composition of Dry Matter 





Ash 


Crude 
fiber 


Crude 
fat 


Crude 
protein 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Hay cured in an air-bath . . 
Hay exposed to rain 


12.18 
12.71 


26.46 

38.83 


3.94 
3.81 


18.71 
11.01 


38.71 
33.64 



The damage to the hay was due partly to mechanical losses from 
leaves and tender parts becoming brittle and breaking off, but 
largely to the loss of protein, nitrogen-free extract, soluble mineral 
components, and aromatic principles, through fermentations and 
exposure to rain. The removal of the latter greatly decreases the 
flavor and palatability of the hay to stock; such damaged alfalfa 
hay is not likely to be worth more than one-half as much as good, 
well-cured hay. 

8 Colorado Bulletins 35 and 110. 



60 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

What has been said in regard to alfalfa applies with equal force 
to other leguminous crops and also, to some extent, to other hay 
crops. These losses arise from two sources, fermentations and 
respiration in the plant cells, both of which are favored by warm, 
damp weather. Coarse plants with thick stems, the cells of which 
are not so rapidly killed on drying, like Indian corn and the sor- 
ghums, lose more feed materials from the sources given under un- 
favorable weather conditions than fine-stemmed plants like the com- 
mon grasses that are readily dried. This explains how corn fodder 
left to cure in shocks will lose about 10 per cent of dry matter, even 
under ideal weather conditions, if standing in the field or kept 
under roof for a period of a month or more. Corn shocks of differ- 
ent sizes left for some months in the dry climate of Colorado lost 
from one-third to over one-half of their dry matter, the losses 
increasing with the size of the shocks. 10 In work by the author in 
Wisconsin which was continued for four years, 11 the average losses 
of dry matter and crude protein in carefully shocked fodder corn 
left in the field from one to several months amounted to about 24 
per cent; similar results have been obtained in investigations con- 
ducted at a number of other experiment stations. 

Since losses like those given will occur in case of corn cured 
under cover with all possible care, it is evident that the average 
losses of dry matter in field-cured fodder corn given in the preceding 
cannot be considered exaggerated, but must, on the contrary, be too 
low to apply to ordinary farm conditions, as a careful study of the 
various experiments will readily show (see p. 108). 

The Siloing Process. — The most important method of prepara- 
tion of feeding stuffs, next to hay-making, is by the siloing process. 
The subject of the silo and silage will be discussed later (p. 149), and 
we shall here refer only to the changes that occur in the composi- 
tion of the plants during the process in so far as they affect the 
nutritive values of the feeding stuffs. During the early stages of 
building silos in this country very large losses occurred in them, 
due mainly to the form of silos built. These were square and 
shallow structures which were poorly adapted for silage-making: 
First, because considerable air was left in the siloed mass and ad- 
mitted from corners and leaky walls; and, second, because large 
amounts of silage spoiled while being fed out. The losses in feed 
materials found in the early silo experiments, therefore, would 
often go up to fifty per cent, and such results were also generally 

10 Colorado Bulletin 30. 

"Report 1891, p. 227; Agr. Science, vol. 10, p. 299. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



61 



obtained in the cases where silage was made in pits in the ground 
or in open stacks. In modern tall, round silos the losses of dry 
matter have been greatly reduced, and under ordinary favorable 
conditions will not amount to more than ten per cent. As in the 
case of field-curing of corn, this loss falls primarily on the carbo- 
hydrates and the protein substances, changing these in part into 
organic acids and amides, respectively, so that the resulting silage 
is higher in fiber and lower in nitrogen-free extract than the ma- 
terial from which it was made. The following average analyses 
of green fodder corn and corn silage will illustrate this fact: 



Average Composition of Green Fodder Corn and Corn Silage, in Per Cent 




Dry 
matter 


Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Fat 


Green corn fodder . 
Corn silage 


79.3 
79.1 


1.2 
1.4 


1.8 
1.7 


5.0 
6.0 


12.2 
11.0 


.5 

.8 



There is a slight decrease in the percentage of protein in silage 
as compared with fodder corn, but there is a further change in the 
protein compounds during the siloing process which does not appear 
from the average analyses given. Through the action of enzymes 
and bacteria, a portion of the protein of the fodder corn undergoes 
cleavage in the silo, and silage, therefore, contains a considerably 
larger proportion of non-albuminoid or amide nitrogen than the 
green corn (p. 11). The latter has been found to contain, on the 
average, 27 per cent of amide nitrogen, against 40 per cent or over 
in silage. 

Effect of Storage. — Changes in the chemical composition occur 
in many feeding stuffs in storage. These are often quantitatively 
too slight to appear in statements of chemical analyses, but still 
are of considerable importance, as, e.g., in the case of new and old 
oats, corn, hay, etc. These and many other feeds lose moisture on 
being stored; changes also occur in the composition of the dry 
matter, which are not yet clearly understood in many cases. New 
oats thus readily cause digestive disorders, such as colic, when fed 
to horses, and it cannot be supposed that the difficulty arises merely 
from the fact that such oats contain, say 10 per cent more moisture 
than old oats. In all probability the enzymes present in the oats, 
of which three different ones have been identified, cause certain 
changes in the composition of the dry matter during storage; 
although not measurable by the ordinary methods adopted in feed 



62 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

analyses, these changes are still of great importance, and transform 
the oats from an undesirable feed to the best-relished and most 
effective available horse feed. 

Changes in the chemical composition also occur in the storage 
of hay, potatoes, and root crops, like sugar beets, mangels, etc. 
These are caused by the respiration of the plant cells and result in 
losses of valuable feed components, especially of soluble carbo- 
hydrates. As a rule, these changes do not affect the palatability of 
the feeds, but they do decrease their general nutritive value (p. 134). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the various factors that influence the quality and yield of crops, 

and state their relative importance. 

2. At what stage of growth does Indian corn contain relatively most 

protein; fat; carbohydrates? 

3. Give the approximate increase in dry matter and carbohydrates in 

Indian corn between tasselling and maturity. 

4. State the changes that occur in the composition of alfalfa from buds 

forming to full bloom. 

5. When does (a) Indian corn, (b) alfalfa yield the largest amounts of 

dry matter and digestible matter per acre? 

6. State the losses that are likely to occur in making alfalfa hay. 

7. Give the losses that are likely to occur in curing Indian corn fodder; 

also the losses in the siloing process. 



CHAPTEE VII 

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DIGESTIBILITY OF 
FEEDING STUFFS 

We have already shown the effect of advanced stages of develop- 
ment of plants on their digestibility. Some other factors that 
influence the digestibility of feeding stuffs will now be considered. 

Different Classes of Farm Animals. — As might be expected 
from the differences in the digestive apparatus of the various classes 
of farm animals, these differ somewhat in their ability to digest cer- 
tain feeding stuffs. Concentrated feeds are digested to a similar 
extent by nearly all classes of farm animals, but this does not hold 
true in the case of coarse feeds. The digestion coefficients for meadow 
hay and oat straw obtained by Kellner in the case of steers and 
sheep will illustrate the differences met with. 1 

Digestibility of Hay and Straw by Steers and Sheep, in Per Cent 





Meadow hay 


Oat straw 


Steers 


Sheep 


Steers 


Sheep 


Dry matter 


65 
61 
61 
64 
70 


62 
57 
57 
61 
69 


57 
32 
43 
63 

58 


47 
19 
50 
49 
49 


Crude protein 


Fat 

Fiber 

Nitrogen-free extract . . . 



Hay or straw of the same origin was fed to both classes of ani- 
mals in these experiments. Greater differences are likely to occur 
where digestion coefficients of feeds of different origin are compared. 
Steers can, in general, digest bulky, coarse feeds better than sheep 
can, while with easily digested feeds only minor differences occur in 
the digestion coefficients obtained with these classes of farm animals. 

Horses and other non-ruminants have a lower digestive capacity 
for coarse feeds than the ruminants. This is especially true as 
regards the fiber content of feeds. Through their more thorough 
mastication of roughage, and the fact that the feed is prepared for 
digestion by being softened in the paunch previous to the stomach 
digestion, the ruminants are able to better utilize the energy of the 
fiber in coarse feeds, like hay and straw, than are horses or pigs. 
The following average figures for digestibility of timothy, alfalfa 



1 Experiment Station Record 9, p. 509. 



63 



64 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



hay, and wheat straw by horses and ruminants will show the extent 
of the differences observed : 

Digestion Coefficients for Horses and Ruminants, in Per Cent 2 





Alfalfa hay 


Timothy hay 


Wheat straw 




Horses 


Rumi- 
nants 


Horses 


Rumi- 
nants 


Horses 


Rumi- 
nants 


Protein 


73 
40 
70 
14 
58 


74 
46 
72 
40 
61 


21 

43 
47 
47 
44 


48 
50 
62 
50 
56 


28 
18 
28 
66 
21 


23 


Fiber 


55 


Nitrogen-free extract .... 
Fat 


39 
36 


Organic matter 


46 


' 





The coarser and less valuable a feeding stuff is, the greater is the 
difference in the digestibility coefficients obtained with the two 
kinds of animals. With concentrates no appreciable difference has, 
however, been observed in the digestibility by ruminants and other 
farm animals : 77 per cent of the protein of oats is thus digested by 
sheep and 79 per cent by horses ; the latter digest 76 per cent of the 
protein in corn, and sheep digest 78 per cent. Digestion experiments 
with swine have shown that, generally speaking, these animals digest 
their feed to a similar extent as horses or ruminants. The differ- 
ences which have been observed in the digestion coefficients are small 
and more likely to have been caused by experimental errors in the 
technique of digestion trials than by actual differences in the digesti- 
bility of the feeds. The experimental errors in determining the 
digestibility of concentrates are considerable, especially in the case 
of animals that cannot be fed such feeds alone, and it is only by 
repeated digestion trials under different conditions as to animals, 
amounts fed, combinations with other feeds, etc., that the results can 
be considered trustworthy. Kellner concluded from his investiga- 
tions of this point : 3 " When only two experiments are made, one 
with hay and the other with hay and wheat bran, there is danger that 
the coefficients of digestibility obtained by the most careful work may 
vary from the actual by =*= 9 per cent in the case of crude protein, 
± 6.4 per cent with the nitrogen-free extract, =t= 19.6 per cent with 
the crude fat, and ± 38.5 per cent with the crude fiber. It is plain 
from this that single experiments give results of very uncertain value, 
which are almost entirely lacking in significance. Weight can be 
only given to the averages of many experiments, and only such 
averages can be regarded as decisive." 

2 Massachusetts Report, 1911. 

8 Experiment Station Record, vol. 9, p. 513. 



DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS 65 

Even swine are able to digest considerable amounts of vegetable 
fiber. Direct experiments have shown that the digestion coefficients 
for fiber obtained with this class of animals are as follows : In the 
case of wheat bran, 39 per cent; wheat shorts, 37 per cent; barley, 
49 per cent; corn, 39 per cent; corn and cob meal, 39 per cent; 
cracked wheat, GO per cent; pea meal, 78 per cent; green oats and 
vetch, 49 per cent. These figures, in most cases, compare favorably 
with the average digestibility coefficients for the respective feeds 
obtained with steers or sheep. 

Breeds. — Different breeds of the same class of farm animals do 
not appear to differ appreciably in their digestive capacity, nor do 
individual animals of the same breed differ in this respect, so long 
as the animals compared are in good health and have good teeth. 
Very young as well as old animals are handicapped in eating whole 
dry grains, on account of their inability to chew their feed well, and 
it should be fed wet or ground to such animals. Differences in the 
digestibility of feeds have sometimes been found in the case of 
individual animals, but there does not seem to be any regularity in 
the variations observed, and these are, therefore, likely to be acci- 
dental and due to errors of experimentation. 

Age. — Age does not seem to affect the digestive capacity of 
animals whose digestive apparatus is fully developed, nor does 
a fair amount of work influence the digestion, provided that this is 
done at a moderate rate, like ordinary work of horses, mules, and 
oxen. Work done at a rapid pace, on the other hand, is likely to 
diminish the digestibility of the rations fed. - 

The various conditions bearing on the chemical composition of 
plants which have already been discussed are also of importance in 
so far as they affect the digestibility of plants. Among other factors 
that might be supposed to influence the digestibility of feeding 
stuffs, besides those already mentioned, are the following: 

Quantity of Feed. — The quantity of feed does not appear to 
appreciably affect its digestibility. It should be said, however, that 
the testimony on this point is somewhat conflicting. The results of 
early experiments by Wolff and others, indicating a similar digesti- 
bility of small and large rations, have not been corroborated by more 
recent work. It seems reasonable to suppose that the digestive fluids 
will vary to a certain extent, both in composition and amounts, with 
the character of the rations fed, in case of herbivora, as found to be 
the case with carnivora in the brilliant investigations by the Russian 
physiologist Pavlov. 4 There is some evidence with herbivora which 

4 "Work of the Digestive Glands," London, 1910. 
5 



66 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



points the same way, but it cannot be said to be conclusive as yet. 5 
The question must be considered still open as to whether a scant 
ration is digested more completely by farm animals than an ample 
ration. This matter, however, is more of scientific interest than of 
practical importance, as no stockman would want to starve or under- 
feed his animals for the purpose of possibly securing thereby a more 
complete percentage utilization of the feed. He would know that 
stock so fed can never yield profitable returns. 

Drying and Preparation of Feeding Stuffs. — The mere drying 
of green or succulent feeds, where this is not accompanied by me- 
chanical or fermentative losses, does not alter their digestibility. 
According to Jordan, four of six feeds experimented with on this 
point showed a slight difference in favor of the dried feeds, while 
two gave the opposite result. It is very certain, however, that as dry- 
ing and curing of green fodder is carried on under ordinary field 
conditions there are considerable losses from abrasion of dry and 
brittle parts, and the remaining feed is, therefore, relatively richer 
in coarse parts, and its digestibility lower than that of the green 
feed. Attention was called to this fact in the discussion of the 
feeding value of alfalfa hay. The losses from these sources are per- 
haps greater in the case of leguminous hay crops than with other 
kinds of hay, but they are appreciable in all cases where the harvest- 
ing of the hay has been delayed until past bloom, or where the curing 
has been done under conditions that would render the hay very dry 
and cause a loss of leaves and tender parts of the plant. As a result, 
hay or other dried feeds have generally been found to have a lower 
digestibility than the original green or wet material. The following 
table of digestion coefficients shows this to be true. As the green 
and dry feeds of the same kind were not, as a rule, of similar origin, 
the two sets of figures given are only comparable in a general way. 
Digestion Coefficients for Green and Dry Feeding Stuffs, in Per Cent 



Organic 
matter 



Protein 



Fiber 



Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 



Fat 



Timothy grass 

Timothy hay 

Corn fodder, dent, mature 

Corn fodder, dry 

Clover, green 

Clover hay 

Alfalfa, green 

Alfalfa hay 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 



66 
64 
74 
66 
61 
55 
61 
62 
63 
64 



72 
68 
63 
45 
65 
58 
74 
74 
73 
71 



64 
66 
66 
63 
53 
54 
43 
46 
40 
48 



68 
63 
81 
73 

72 
65 
72 
72 
62 
60 



52 
49 
80 
70 
63 
56 
39 
40 
86 
88 



5 See Illinois Bulletin 172. 



DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS 67 

Grinding, Cutting, or Rolling of Feeds. — The digestibility of 
feeding stuffs is not, as a general rule, materially altered by special 
methods of preparation, like cutting, grinding, cracking, or rolling. 
An exception to this rule is found in the case of old or very young 
animals that cannot chew their feed well, and with small, hard seeds 
that would largely pass through the digestive tract unbroken and 
would not be acted upon by the digestive fluids of the body. When 
used for feeding farm animals, grains like wheat, barley, rye, kafir 
corn, etc., are therefore usually ground, and other cereals (corn, 
oats) are ground only when fed to young animals or to very old 
animals, so as to insure a maximum digestibility. If whole or 
broken grain reappears in the dung of the animals, it is evident that 
the feed had better be ground, or, if already ground, that too much is 
fed, and the allowance should in that case be reduced. 

Hay and other roughage is sometimes run through a cutter 
before being fed out when of poor quality, or for mixing with other 
feeds, so that the animals may eat as much as possible thereof. In 
the western States alfalfa hay is frequently cut for steers and dairy 
cows. This is considered as economical practice, both because it 
insures the hay being eaten without waste and because it means a 
considerable saving of storage room. It is a common practice in 
European countries to feed cut straw mixed with grain to horses and 
occasionally to other farm animals, so as to induce them to consume 
a considerable amount of cheap roughage. 

Soaking, Cooking, or Steaming Feed. — The digestibility of 
feeding stuffs is not influenced by soaking or wetting these prior to 
feeding time, but a depression of the digestion coefficients for protein 
will occur when the feeds are boiled, steamed, or otherwise subjected 
to high temperatures. The method of cooking feed was at one time 
much practised, especially among European farmers, but it has now 
been generally abandoned, except in the case of feeding swine. 
Numerous trials conducted at experiment stations have shown that 
it does not, in general, pay to cook feed for farm stock. There is 
a certain advantage in cooking potatoes and in steaming cut straw 
and hay of poor quality when intended for feeding swine, from the 
fact that the cell tissues are softened by the process, and the non- 
nitrogenous components are thus acted upon more thoroughly by the 
digestive fluids. 

This does not refer to the protein substances, however, as these 
are rendered less digestible through the action of heat. The per- 
centage of digestible protein in fresh, wet beet pulp was thus found 
by artificial digestion to be 60.1 per cent; after being dried at 



68 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



75° to 80° C., 58.7 per cent, and after drying at 125° to 130° C, 
41.1 per cent. The author found the digestion coefficient for protein 
in old-process linseed meal by artificial digestion to be 94.3 per 
cent, and for new-process meal, in the manufacture of which higher 
temperatures are used, 84.1 per cent. 6 The average coefficients 
for the two kinds of oil meal obtained in American digestion 
trials with ruminants are 89 and 85 per cent, respectively. A similar 
depression in the digestibility of protein in feeding stuffs resulting 
from application of heat has been observed in digestion trials on 
farm animals for meadow hay, corn silage, vetch silage, wheat bran, 
and dried beet pulp, and in artificial digestion trials with many 
human foods as well as with cattle feeds. 

The Siloing Process. — From what has already been said, we 
should not expect that the siloing process will appreciably affect the 
digestibility of feeding stuffs, since the heat generated in the silo 
fermentation will rarely exceed 60° C. (140° F.). The following 
average digestion coefficients for three kinds of silage will show the 
influence of the siloing process as regards digestibility : 

Digestion Coefficients for Green Fodders and Corresponding Silage, in Per Cent 



Corn fodder, dent, mature 
Corn silage, dent, mature 

Clover, green 

Clover silage 

Soybeans 

Soybean silage 



Dry 

matter 






Nitrogen- 


Protein 


Fiber 


free 
extract 


72 


54 


59 


75 


70 


51 


65 


71 


61 


65 


53 


72 


45 


35 


48 


45 


67 


78 


45 


77 


67 


66 


53 


65 



Fat 



75 

82 

63 
45 

55 
57 



Only a few determinations of the digestibility of the last two 
feeds have been made so far, and the decrease in the digestibility of 
these crops in the silo may be found less important than now shown, 
when as much work has been done with them as with corn silage. It 
is evident, however, that no improvement in digestibility can be 
expected in siloing feeding stuffs ; the favorable results obtained in 
feeding silage as compared with dried forage must, therefore, be due 
to the relatively small losses of feed materials occurring in the silo- 
ing process as compared with the curing of fodder or hay, and to the 
palatability and beneficial effects of silage on the health of the 
animals. 

6 Wisconsin Report, 1895, p. 75. 



DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS 69 

Influence of Different Nutrients — Carbohydrates. — It was 
found, during the early studies of nutrition problems with farm ani- 
mals, that the digestibility of a ration was appreciably decreased by 
the addition of large quantities of carbohydrates; the effect was 
noticed when more than 10 per cent of the dry substance of a ration 
was composed of soluble or other carbohydrates, and was especially 
marked as regards the digestion coefficients for protein, fiber, and 
nitrogen-free extract. Potatoes, roots, or corn will cause such a 
depression in the digestibility when added to rations of wider nutri- 
tive ratios than 1:8; the wider the nutritive ratio is, the greater will 
the depression be. If the protein content of a ration be increased 
with the allowance of carbohydrates, the depression in the digesti- 
bility of protein is decreased. High-protein feeds may, therefore, 
be fed with starchy coarse feeds, like hay or straw, without affecting 
their digestibility, but starchy feeds, like roots and tubers, cannot be 
fed in larger proportions than 15 per cent of the ration, calculated 
on the total dry matter content, without decreasing its digestibility. 

The Massachusetts station lately corroborated these results of 
early investigators and showed that molasses and molasses feeds 
have a similar effect on the digestibility of the hay, as given above 
in the case of potatoes and roots. 7 When molasses constituted more 
than 20 per cent of the dry matter of a ration of hay and gluten feed, 
a marked depression in the digestibility of the ration was observed. 

Fat (oil). — A moderate amount of oil added to a ration for 
cows, say one-half to one pound daily per 1000 pounds live weight, 
exerts a favorable influence on its digestibility, but if larger quanti- 
ties are fed, the nutritive ratio of the ration becomes very wide, with 
a resulting depression in the digestibility; more can be fed in the 
form of the oil-bearing seeds, e.g., flaxseed, than clear oil without 
seriously affecting the digestibility of the ration or the appetite of 
the animals. A heavy feeding of oil, even if it were economical, is 
not advantageous, because it is likely to cause a loss of appetite. 

Protein. — An addition of easily digestible protein substances to a 
ration does not influence its digestibility in any way. In experiments 
with pigs in which potatoes with varying quantities of meat flour 
were fed the crude protein of the meat was completely digested, while 
the proportion of potatoes digested remained unchanged. Protein 
added to a ration not only does not affect the digestibility of the 
basal ration, but will counteract any depression in digestibility that 
might be caused by the addition of large quantities of soluble carbo- 
hydrates, as has been stated. It has been found, in general, in ex- 

' Report 1909, part i, pp. 82-131. 



70 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

periments with ruminants, that the best conditions for the digestion 
of rations fed are found when these contain about one part of diges- 
tible protein for every eight parts of digestible non-nitrogenous 
substances (including fat multiplied by 2.25). In the case of swine 
a depression in the digestibility of carbohydrates will not occur until 
starch has been added in sufficient quantities to bring the nutritive 
ratio of the ration down to 1 : 12, and the digestibility of the crude 
protein was not affected by a ratio of 1:9. The result of experi- 
mental work shows that the maximum nutritive effect of a ration 
can be obtained only when the relation between the digestible protein 
and non-protein (the nutritive ratio) lies within certain limits that 
may not be outside of 1 : 8 in the case of ruminants and 1:9 to 12 
in the case of pigs. 

Other Components. — The addition of free acids, like sulfuric 
or lactic acid, will not influence the digestibility of a ration or of 
its components. Since there are large amounts of free organic acids, 
like lactic, acetic, and butyric acids, in silage, particularly of the 
first two acids, this result is important. It is not recommended, 
however, to give such feeds in large quantities to cows whose milk is 
used for infant feeding, or for feeding young stock, as they have a 
tendency to cause looseness of the bowels. 

The effect of many other materials on the digestibility of feeding 
stuffs has been investigated, like calcium carbonate, common salt 
(sodium chloride), and other mineral salts. In general, no influence 
on the digestibility of feeds has been observed in experiments con- 
ducted for the study of these problems. A moderate amount of com- 
mon salt will improve the palatability of a feed, however, and may 
cause an animal to eat more and thus give better returns, if this is 
adapted to the specific purposes for which it is kept. A good dairy 
cow, e.g., if stimulated to consume larger amounts of feed than be- 
fore, will respond to the more liberal feeding by an increase in her 
milk production, while a cow not bred consistently " along dairy 
lines," with a view to securing a large milk production, will put on 
body fat under similar conditions, and the milk yield will be likely to 
decrease as a result. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do steers and sheep differ in their ability to digest (a) coarse 

feeds; (b) concentrates? 

2. What is the main difference in the digestive capacity of horses and cattle? 

3. Name the various factors that influence the digestibility of feeding stuffs. 

4. How do (a) drying and (ft) cooking affect the digestibility of protein? 

Give some examples. 

5. Give the influence of different nutrients on the digestibility of feeding 

stuffs. 



CHAPTER VIII 

CALCULATION OF RATIONS 

Questions relating to rations for the various classes of farm ani- 
mals will be considered in detail later on, in the discussion of feeding 
problems connected with the respective animals. We shall here give 
the general method by which rations are calculated from the tables of 
composition and digestibility of feeding stuffs. 

The Wolff-Lehmann Standard. — We shall suppose that a 
milch cow yielding about 20 pounds of milk daily is to be fed a 
ration composed of the following feeds: Hay from mixed grasses, 
corn meal, wheat bran, and oil meal. Experience has taught us that 
a cow will eat, on the average, about 20 pounds of hay daily, with a 
fair allowance of concentrates. It is a good plan to feed concen- 
trates in proportion to the amount of milk or butter fat produced by 
the cows. We will assume that the cow will receive as a trial ration, 
in addition to the amount of hay given, three pounds of corn meal 
and four pounds of wheat bran. From Table I in the Appendix we 
learn the composition of hay, corn meal, and bran. 



Ingredients for a Trial Ration 





Dry 

matter, 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 


Digestible 

carbohydrates 

and fat, 

pounds 


100 pounds of hay contain 

100 pounds of corn meal contain .... 
100 pounds of wheat bran contain . . 


84.7 

88.7 
88.1 


4.2 

8.0 

11.9 


44.9 
75.9 
47.6 



Twenty pounds of hay, therefore, contain : 

.847 X 20 = 16.94 pounds dry matter; 

.042 X 20 = .84 pound digestible protein ; and 

.449 X 20= 8.98 pounds digestible carbohydrates and fat. 
In the same way three pounds of corn meal will contain: 

.887 X 3 = 2.60 pounds dry matter; 

.08 X3= .24 pound digestible protein ; 

.759 X 3 = 2.28 pounds digestible carbohydrates and fat; and 
Four pounds of wheat bran will be found to contain : 

3.52 pounds dry matter; 
.48 pound digestible protein, and 

1.90 pounds digestible carbohydrates and fat. 

71 



72 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

We now have the composition of the ration given as follows 





Results of First Trial 








Dry 

matter, 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 


Digestible 
carbohydrates 
and fat, , 
pounds 


20 pounds hay 


16.94 
3.52 
2.66 


.84 
.48 
.24 


8.98 


4 pounds wheat bran 


1.90 


3 pounds corn meal 


2.28 








Total 


23.12 
29.0 


1.56 
2.5 


13.16 


Wolff-Lehmann standard 


14.1 








Deficit 


5.88 


.94 


.94 







There is, therefore, a deficit both in dry matter and digestible 
components in the ration ; and it is evident that we have to supply a 
high-protein feed in order to keep the relation between the two classes 
of nutrients near to the requirements of the standard. Linseed meal 
serves this purpose very well, and we may add 2 pounds of this to the 
ration. 

Results of Second Trial 





Dry 

matter 


Protein 


Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
and fat 


N. R., 
1: 


Ration as above 

2 pounds oil meal 


23.12 
1.80 


1.56 
.60 


13.16 
.95 








Total 


24.92 
29.0 


2.16 
2.5 


14.11 
14.1 


6.5 


Wolff-Lehmann standard 


5.6 




4.08 


.36 


.01* 





♦Excess. 

The ration is still below the standard in dry matter and digestible 
protein, especially the former, but may be sufficiently close to the 
standard for all practical purposes. If we had to feed a poorer 
grade of roughage than the hay given, more dry matter would have 
to be supplied in proportion to the digestible matter, and the deficit 
of dry matter would have been avoided without increasing at the 
same time the digestible components of the ration. The Wolff-Leh- 
mann standards were framed to conform especially to ordinary 
European feeding practices, which generally include some straw or 
low-grade roughage in the rations fed to livestock. 



CALCULATION OF RATIONS 73 

The ration as given might be improved by feeding a concentrate, 
like cotton-seed meal, in the place of oil meal. This feed contains 
still more digestible protein than the linseed meal, viz., 37.6 per cent, 
and, by substituting 2 pounds of it for the linseed meal, the digestible 
protein of the ration would be raised to nearly the requirements of 
the standard. It would make a less palatable ration for cows, how- 
ever, and in most parts of the country would render it somewhat 
more expensive. 

Another change in the ration that would bring it closer to the 
standard in digestible protein and nutritive ratio would be to replace 
one-half of the wheat bran by middlings, or one-half of the corn meal 
by oats or barley. The desirability of making these changes would 
depend mainly on the cost of the various feeds. The nutritive effect 
of the ration would not be likely to be materially influenced by the 
changes suggested, except that it is, in general, advisable to feed 
a mixture of several feeds to dairy cows and heavy-producing animals 
rather than only one or two, as it will increase the palatability of 
the ration and stimulate the appetite. The preceding ration is, 
however, satisfactory as given and will produce good results " at the 
pail." 

Nutritive Ratio. — We notice that the nutritive ratio of the ration 
given is 1 : 6.5 instead of 1 : 5.6, as required by the standard. It 
follows from what has been said, however, that it is not important 
to bring the nutritive ratio closer than this to the standard. 

Up to recent times a definite nutritive ratio was considered 
important for the specific purpose of feeding in view; e.g., 1 : 5.4 was 
the required ratio for milch cows, according to the original Wolff 
(German) standard, and it was not deemed advisable to vary greatly 
from this ratio. Investigations conducted since the publication of the 
Wolff -Lehmann standard have shown, however, that, given a certain 
minimum of digestible protein in a ration, its exact nutritive ratio is 
of no great importance ; but a liberal supply of total digestible matter 
in a ration is important, and a nutritive ratio of 1 : 7, or even wider, 
may prove nearly as efficient for feeding dairy cows as a narrow 
ration, provided the former ration furnishes a more abundant supply 
of digestible nutrients. This applies with special force to fattening 
animals, 1 but holds good also in the case of dairy cows and ether 
animals to which it was formerly considered necessary to supply 
rations of especially narrow nutritive ratios in order to secure a 
large and economical production. 

1 See Kellner, Landw, Versuchs-Stationen, vol. 53, pp. 1-474, 



74 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



A ration containing a relatively small amount of protein is 
spoken of as having a wide ratio, e.g., 1 : 7 or higher, and one with a 
relatively high protein content as having a narrow nutritive ratio, 
e.g., 1 : 5.4 or less. A medium ratio would lie between these limits. 
The nutritive ratios of different feeding stuffs range from 1 : 1 or 
below, as in the cases of dried blood, tankage, cotton-seed meal, to 
1 : 20 or above, as in the case of cornstalks, sorghum hay, and straw 
of the cereals. The former feeds and others in the same class are 
known as protein feeds or nitrogenous feeds, and the latter as starchy 
or non-nitrogenous feeds. The nutritive ratio of a feed is of value 
in showing whether it supplies largely protein or non-nitrogenous 
components and whether one feed can be substituted for another 
without change in physiological effect (see p. 38). 

Armsby's Energy Values. — As previously stated, the Armsby 
standards show the amount of digestible true protein and energy 
values required for feeding different classes of farm animals. The 
requirements for maintenance and for production are given sepa- 
rately. For a dairy cow the standard thus calls for the following 
amount of nutrients for the two purposes : 

For maintenance, 0.5 pound digestible true protein and 6.0 
therms of energy values per 1000 pounds live weight. 

For production, 0.05 pound digestible true protein and 0.3 
therm per pound of milk of average quality. 

In the example given above the amount of nutrients to be fur- 
nished the cow would, therefore, be as follows, assuming the cow 
to weigh 1000 pounds : 



Nutrients in Energy Values 





Digestible 

true protein 

pounds 


Energy 
values, 
therms 


For maintenance 

For production 

Total requirements 


.5 
1.0 

1.5 


6.0 
6.0 

12.0 



By reference to Table III in the Appendix it will be found that 
the feeds given in the preceding example contain the following 
amounts of digestible protein and energy values : 



CALCULATION OF RATIONS 

Ration Expressed in Protein and Energy Values 



75 





Digestible 

true protein, 

pounds 


Energy 
values, 
therms 


20 pounds timothy hay 

4 pounds bran 

3 pounds corn meal . . 
2 pounds oil meal .... 

Total 

Variation from standard 


.41 
.41 
.20 
.55 

1.57 

.07 


6.71 

1.93 
2.67 
1.58 


12.89 
.89 



The agreement between the standard and the composition of the 
calculated ration is as close as can be desired in this case. No 
importance can be attached to the slight excess of 0.07 pound in the 
digestible protein in the ration or the excess of energy value, 0.89 
therm, and we conclude, therefore, that a ration like the one given is 
theoretically sound, and it will be found practical and efficient in 
feeding dairy cows producing a medium amount of milk, say 20 
pounds a day. 

Comparison of Standards. — The Wolff-Lehmann and Armsby 
standards are recommended for use in calculating rations by differ- 
ent authorities, and both will be found valuable for this purpose. 
Either set of standards has the advantage over the other in certain 
points, and students should become familiar with both, so as to be 
able to apply in each case the particular method of calculation that 
may best serve the purpose in view. We have seen that the Armsby 
standards are, in the main, derived from the investigational work 
done during the last quarter of a century by German scientists, 
largely Kellner, who worked mainly with mature fattening steers. 
Only a small amount of research work relative to the application 
of the system of energy values to the feeding of other farm animals 
has been done; in case of some animals, like sheep, pigs, and poultry, 
such work is entirely lacking (p. 51), so that the standards based on 
energy values, proposed for all animals except fattening cattle, rest 
on a more or less insecure basis. 

The Wolff-Lehmann standards, on the other hand, do not take 
cognizance of the varying value of digestible matter in different 
feeding stuffs due to the losses of energy in the processes of digestion 
and assimilation. Rations composed of feeds that supply similar 
amounts of digestible matter might, therefore, differ greatly in the 
amounts of net available energy that they supply, and would in that 
case have a different feeding value for maintenance or productive 



76 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

purposes. Under ordinary practical conditions, however, rations are 
composed of roughage and concentrates in about similar proportions, 
and no great error is therefore introduced by the use of these 
standards. They have been simplified in this book by combining 
digestible fat with the digestible carbohydrates, according to its fuel 
value, so that only dry matter, digestible protein, and digestible 
carbohydrates and fat are now considered, making the necessary 
calculations very simple. The fact that these standards are based 
on the vast amount of work done during the last half century or 
more, in the lines of chemical analysis, digestion trials, and feeding 
experiments with all kinds of farm animals, renders them especially 
valuable to both farmers and students of feeding problems, and they 
may safely be taken as aids to rational feeding, even though they 
cannot be considered infallible guides. 

Limitations of Feeding Standards. — Feeding standards are 
intended to be used only as gauges by which the farmer may estimate 
the quantities of nutrients required by his stock for a certain produc- 
tion, and are not to be followed blindly. Farm animals vary greatly 
in their productive capacity, as well as in their feed requirements 
and their capacity to make economical use of their feed ; hence feed- 
ing standards can apply only to average conditions, a point which 
should always be kept in mind in using them. In constructing 
rations according to the standards, several points must be considered 
besides the chemical composition and the digestibility of the feeding 
stuffs. 

The same feeds vary greatly in chemical composition and digesti- 
bility, as we have seen ; this fact renders it quite unnecessary to make 
a certain combination of feeds conform absolutely to the feeding 
standard, for we have no assurance that the particular feeds avail- 
able will closely correspond to the average figures for the digestible 
components given in tables of composition of feeding stuffs; in 
fact, the chances are that they will vary more or less from the average 
data given in the tables. Therefore, unless samples of the feeds on 
hand are analyzed by a chemist, and digestion trials conducted with 
each feed — both of which are lengthy and laborious tasks — we can 
know only in a general way what the actual values of the available 
feeds are. In view of this uncertainty as to the exact composition of 
the feeds, it is quite useless to try to make a certain combination of 
feeds conform to a definite standard within a few hundredths or 
tenths of a pound. The standards are a valuable guide to the practi- 
cal feeder and the student of animal nutrition, but it would be a mis- 
take to look upon them as precepts that must be rigidly adhered to. 



CALCULATION OF RATIONS 77 

There are several other considerations that should receive atten- 
tion in formulating rations for farm animals, besides supplying 
nutrients in the right amounts and proportions and getting an effec- 
tive ration at as low a cost as possible. Among these are : 

First, the feeds must be palatable to the animals fed and must 
not have any deleterious influence on their digestion or general health 
or on the products which they furnish. A well-balanced ration for 
milch cows can be made up of oat straw and oil meal, but it would 
not be likely to produce satisfactory results, because of the large 
amount of roughage the cows would have to consume and the unpala- 
tability of the ration. 

Second, the rations must contain a fair proportion of roughage 
and concentrates; they must not be too bulky and still must contain 
a sufficient amount of roughage to keep up the rumination of the 
animals, in the case of cows and sheep, and to secure a healthy 
condition of the animals generally. In the case of dairy cows, about 
two pounds of hay are generally fed per hundredweight, if this is the 
sole roughage. If silage is available, one pound of hay and three 
pounds of silage may be fed per hundredweight, and one pound of 
concentrates for every three to five pounds of milk produced, accord- 
ing to the character of the roughage and the quality of the milk pro- 
duced; if a good quality of roughage is available, less grain may be 
fed, and vice versa. Cows producing milk of low fat content should 
receive less grain per pound of milk than high testing cows (see 
p. 240). A good rule for feeding grain to cows on mixed hay, corn 
stover, corn silage, and similar low-protein roughage is to allow as 
many pounds of grain a day as the cow gives pounds of butter fat 
in a week. Cows receiving a good grade of alfalfa or other rich 
coarse feeds will not need more than one-half of this amount of 
grain feed. 

Third, the ration should conform to the system of farming fol- 
lowed, and this should be arranged with a view to growing on the 
farm, if possible, all the roughage and most of the concentrates which 
the stock are to receive, so that the farmer may be largely indepen- 
dent of the feed market with its fluctuating prices. 

Fourth, the rations are preferably composed of feeds of different 
origin, so that, especially, the protein substances are supplied from 
different sources. The recent experiments with cows fed rations 
balanced from restricted sources (corn, wheat, or oat products only) 
at the Wisconsin Experiment Station 2 illustrate in a striking way 
the necessity of furnishing a variety in the make-up of rations for 

2 Research Bulletin 17. 



78 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

dairy cows at least, and the same doubtless holds true also for other 
classes of farm animals. Of the rations experimented with, only 
those composed entirely of corn feeds (corn meal, gluten feed, and 
cornstalks) proved satisfactory for dairy cows (see p. 1G6). 

Fifth, the local market prices of feeding stuffs are of the greatest 
importance in determining which feeds to use ; the conditions in the 
different sections of our continent are so different in this respect as 
to render generalization difficult. As a rule, nitrogenous concen- 
trates are the cheapest feeds in the South and the East, and flour- 
mill, brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds the cheapest in the 
Northwest. Where alfalfa or other leguminous crops form the main 
dependence of farm animals for roughage, nitrogenous concentrates 
need not be fed to the extent that is necessary where farmers depend 
on mixed hay, corn fodder, and other non-nitrogenous forage crops 
for feeding their stock. 

The feeding standards express the physiological requirements of 
animals for a certain production. The economy of systems of feeding 
based on the standards does not enter into consideration, nor is it 
possible to formulate feeding standards of general or permanent 
value that take into consideration the financial side of the question, 
since the market prices of feeds vary in different places and at dif- 
ferent times in the same places. But for the practical farmer the 
cost of feeds is a factor of vital importance. It is of little help to 
him to be told that he can secure a certain production of milk or meat 
by a special system of feeding if the prices of the different feeding 
stuffs called for make it impossible or unprofitable for him to adopt 
them in his feeding operations. However, the standards place before 
the feeder an ideal which he may approach as nearly as the special 
conditions by which he is surrounded will allow. The relative cost 
of different feeding stuffs must always be considered, and the choice 
of feeds with which to supplement home-grown forage crops and 
grain must be made accordingly. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Explain how a ration is calculated according to (a) the Wolff -Leh- 

mann standard ; ( b ) the Armsby standard. 

2. Discuss the relative value of these two standards for (a) dairy cows; 

(b) fattening steers. 

3. Formulate rations for a 1000-pound dairy cow producing 20 pounds of 

4 per cent milk, according to (a) Wolff -Lehmann, (6) Armsby stand- 
ards, using the following feeding stuffs: Mixed hay, oats, and wheat 
middlings. 

4. Explain the method of calculating nutritive ratios; give an example. 

5. State the limitations of feeding standards, and give at least four points 

to be considered in formulating rations for farm animals. 

6. What is the difference between a physiological standard and a practical 

feeding standard? 



CHAPTEE IX 

THE FEED-UNIT SYSTEM 

The feed-unit system furnishes a convenient and practical 
method of determining the comparative nutritive values of different 
feeding stuffs. It originated in Denmark, and has been used there 
and in other north Euroj)ean countries during the last couple of dec- 
ades for comparing the feed consumption of farm animals during 
certain periods and the relative economy of their production. While 
originally worked out for dairy cows and mostly applied to these, the 
system has also been adapted to other classes of farm animals, espe- 
cially swine, calves, and horses. 

A simple single figure is obtained by this system for the total 
feed eaten by an animal during a given period, including that eaten 
on pasture, and valuable information may thus be secured relative 
to the economy of the production by a comparison of the total feed 
consumption and production of the animals. The different feeds are 
given equivalent values according to the results of elaborate, care- 
fully-conducted feeding experiments, most of which were made at 
Copenhagen Experiment Station. All feeds are referred to a stand- 
ard, the so-called feed unit, which is a pound of mixed grain, like 
corn, barley, wheat, or rye. 

Numerous feeding experiments, conducted with the greatest care 
and scientific accuracy, have shown that, e.g., 1.1 pounds of 
wheat bran or 2.5 pounds of mixed hay of average quality can be 
substituted to a limited extent for a pound of grain in ordinary 
rations for dairy cows without causing any appreciable change in the 
yield or the composition of the milk produced by the cows, or in- 
fluencing their body weight or general condition. The quantities of 
the different feeds given, 1.1 pounds wheat bran and 2.5 pounds hay, 
are therefore equivalent to one feed unit. Table IV in the Appen- 
dix gives a list of feed units obtained largely as a result of Scandi- 
navian feeding experiments with cows, supplemented by results of 
American trials and feeding experience. In case of coarse feeds, 
certain limits are given between which the equivalent values may 
vary, according to the quality of the feed ; e.g., a choice grade of 
alfalfa hay will have a unit value of 1.5 ; i.e., it would take 1.5 pounds 

79 



80 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

to equal a pound of mixed grain in nutritive effect, while in the ease 
of a poor quality of this hay it will take 3 pounds to equal a feed 
unit, etc. 

The value of pasture may vary between 6 and 12 units per day, 
according to the production of the cows and the kind and the con- 
dition of the pasture. The former figure may be applied in case 
of dry cows, or for scant or largely dried-up pastures; the latter 
for heavy-producing cows on luxurious pasture. 

A simple example will readily explain the application of the 
system. We will suppose that a cow ate 750 pounds of hay, 150 
pounds of wheat bran, and 90 pounds of ground corn during a cer- 
tain month. 

The cow consequently received 750 divided by 2.5, or 300 feed 
units in the hay eaten; 

150 divided by 1.1, or 136 feed units in the bran, and 

90 feed units in the corn, 

making a total feed consumption of 526 feed units for the month. 
If she yielded 30 pounds of butter fat during the month on this feed, 
she produced 30 -f- 5.26, or 5.7 pounds of butter fat per 100 feed 
units. 

By the use of the unit values given, the feed consumption of in- 
dividual cows for an entire year may be obtained and compared 
with their production, thus enabling a farmer to determine whether 
a cow is a sufficiently high and economical producer to remain in 
the herd, and the net returns for the feed which each cow in the herd 
has yielded. It also makes it possible to compare the results obtained 
in different herds, and furnishes valuable data for studies of the 
relation of feed to dairy production. 

The Feed-Unit Standard. — The following feeding standard for 

dairy cows, according to the feed-unit system, has been proposed by 

Hansson, of the Eoyal Swedish Academy, for a 1000-pound cow per 

day: 

For maintenance, 0.65 pound digestible protein and 6.6 feed units. 
For production, 0.045 pound to 0.05 pound digestible protein and y 3 
feed unit per pound of milk. 1 

Example. — A 1000-pound cow received 30 pounds silage, 8 
pounds clover hay, 3 pounds corn meal, and 3 pounds gluten feed. 
How many feed units does she receive in her feed, and how many 
units are required per 100 pounds of milk and per pound of butter 
fat ? How much digestible protein and how many feed units should 
she receive according to the feed-unit standard? 

1 " Kontrolforen. Arbetsfiilt," Stockbolm, 1910. 



THE FEED-UNIT SYSTEM 
Ration Compared with Feed-Unit Standard 



81 





Feed 

units 


Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 


Standard 


Ration fed 




Feed 
units 


Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 


30 pounds corn silage — 30+6 = 
8 pounds clover hay — 8 -=- 2 = 
3 pounds corn 


5 
4 
3 
3.3 

15.3 


.42 
.57 
.23 
.64 

1.86 


Maintenance 
Production . . 

Total .... 


6.6 

7.2 

13.8 


.65 
1.20 


3 pounds gluten feed — 3 -4- .9 = 
Total 


1.85 







According to the feed-unit standard, the cow should receive 1.85 
pounds of digestible protein and 13.8 feed units per day; we note 
that the ration supplies 1.86 pounds digestible protein and 15.3 
feed units. It is, therefore, somewhat higher in feed units than the 
standard, but the amount of protein tallies perfectly with that called 
for by the standard. 

The feed-unit system is simple and easily applied. It has been 
found to give accurate results under ordinary farm conditions, and 
is scientifically well founded, as has been shown by the fact that the 
results obtained by this system do not, as a rule, vary from the 
methods of valuation of feeding stuffs based on their contents of 
digestible matter or energy values. 2 At least so far as dairy cows 
and swine are concerned, this system may be depended upon to fur- 
nish fully as reliable a guide to practical feeding operations as either 
of the two methods given, and will doubtless be generally adopted in 
the future also in this country, especially in the work of cow-testing 
associations. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Explain the origin of the feed-unit system. 

2. What are the special advantages of this system, and to what classes of 

farm animals is it especially adapted? 

3. How is the value of pasturage determined in this system? 

4. Give the feed-unit standard for dairy cows. 

5. Formulate a ration for a 1000-pound dairy cow according to this stand- 

ard, using the following feeds: Mixed hay, corn silage, wheat hran, 
barley, linseed meal. 

6. How does the ration given above agree with the Wolff-Lehmann and 

Armsby standards for milch cows with the same production? 

2 Wisconsin Circular 37, p. 12. 



CHAPTER X 
RELATIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 

We have seen that the relative cost of feeding stuffs is a matter 
of the greatest importance to the farmer. If he has to buy feeds for 
his stock in order to supplement the farm-grown crops, as nearly all 
farmers have to do, he must give due regard to getting the most for 
his money in actual feeding value. He should be in position, there- 
fore, to ascertain the relative feeding value of the available feeds 
according to the best information at hand. 

The relative value of feeding stuffs may be measured in several 
ways: According to (a) the market prices of the feeds; (b) their 
contents of digestible nutrients; (c) their energy values, and (d) 
the feed units which they furnish. 

Considering first the market values of feeds, it is well known that 
these are subject to great variations and are influenced by a number 
of factors which do not necessarily bear on the intrinsic feeding 
value of the feeds. To illustrate, alfalfa is as valuable a feed in 
the western States, where it may be bought at $8 a ton or less at 
times, as in the eastern or central States, where it generally com- 
mands more than twice this price; again, cotton-seed meal and 
cake are worth as much to the southern farmer as to the Pacific 
coast feeder or the European dairyman. But these latter have to 
pay nearly twice as much for it as the former. 

The question of cost of transportation is evidently of paramount 
importance in determining the market price of a feed; another 
factor is the reputation of a particular feed, which greatly influences 
the demand for it. The relative prices of cotton-seed meal and 
linseed meal well illustrate this fact. In many sections of the 
country the former furnishes considerable more protein at the same 
or lower prices than the latter, and is fully as good a feed for most 
purposes, and still does not find as ready sale as linseed meal. The 
market prices of feeds are often not a reliable guide to their intrinsic 
value, and they also fluctuate greatly in different places and in differ- 
ent years ; hence any attempt to gauge the value of feeds according to 
their cost is bound to prove unsuccessful. Several authors — and the 
writer among them — have calculated the commercial values of pro- 
tein, fat, and carbohydrates in concentrated feeding stuffs from the 
82 



RELATIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 83 

average composition and market prices of a large number of com- 
mon feeds, and used the figures thus obtained for comparisons of the 
cost of different feeding stuffs, but unless at least a dozen different 
feeds are included in the calculations and these are repeated at 
frequent intervals, at least every five years, the results obtained are 
not very satisfactory. Such calculations are laborious, and the 
results, as may be inferred, are valuable only for a limited period 
and region. 3 

Methods of Comparison. — The only methods of comparison 
that have a general value are the three previously given, based on the 
digestible components of feeds, their energy values, or feed-unit 
values. The method of comparison to be followed in each case will 
be explained in the following paragraphs : 

(a) Digestible Components. — The digestible components of the 
feeds to be compared are added together, the per cent of digestible 
fat being first multiplied by 2.25, and the sum divided into the 
market prices for 100 pounds of the different feeds. The cost per 
unit of digestible matter is thus obtained, and the feed or feeds that 
supply a pound of digestible matter at the lowest cost are selected. 
This method furnishes reliable information in regard to the com- 
parative value of feeds of the same kinds, rough feeds, concentrates, 
roots, etc., but not when feeds of different classes are compared, on 
account of the greater losses of energy in the digestion of coarse 
feeds than in the case of concentrates. 

(b) Energy Values. — The net energy values for 100 pounds of 
the different feeds are divided into the price per 100 pounds, and 
the feed or feeds furnishing a unit of energy value (therm) at the 
lowest cost thus ascertained. These values are reliable for produc- 
tion of increase in body weight in the case of fattening steers, and 
approximately so also for other purposes of animal production. 

(c) Feed-unit Values. — The cost of a feed unit is determined 
by multiplying the cost per 100 pounds by the feed-unit value of each 
feed. The lowest cost per feed unit shows the cheapest feeds. The 
origin and meaning of the feed-unit system is explained in another 
chapter of this book (p. 79). 

Example 1. — Given green corn fodder at $2 per ton; alfalfa hay 
at $10 a ton ; corn at GO cents a bushel ($21.40 a ton) ; wheat bran 
at $24, and linseed meal at $30 a ton, which feeds are most economi- 
cal for feeding dairy cows? 

By reference to Table I in the Appendix, we obtain the following 
figures : 

3 Wisconsin Report 8, p. 212. 



84 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Example 1, Details of Cost 





Feed 


Cost 
per 100 
pounds, 

cents 


Digestible 
matter 


Energy values 


Feed units 


No. 


Total 
pounds 


Cost 
per 

pound, 
cents 


Total 
^therms 


Cost 

per 

therm, 

cents 


Total 


Cost 
per 
unit, 
cents 


1 




10 

50 

107 

120 

150 


13.8 
53.0 
83.9 

77.7 
59.5 


.72 

.94 

1.28 

2.02 

1.93 


12.4 
34.4 

88.8 
48.2 
78.9 


.81 
1.45 
1.20 
2.49 
1.90 


8.0 
2.0 
1.0 
1.1 
.9 


8 


2 




1.0 


3 




1.07 


4 




1 32 


5 




1 35 









We note that the rank of the different feeds at the prices given 
is as follows : 

According to contents of digestible matter, 1, 2, 3, 5, 4. 

According to energy values, 1, 3, 2, 5, 4. 

According to feed-unit values, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 

The relative value of these feeds does not differ greatly whether 
one or the other of the methods of calculation be adopted; fodder 
corn is the cheapest feed according to all three methods of calcula- 
tion ; alfalfa or corn meal comes next, and wheat bran and oil meal 
are the most expensive feeds. Where differences in the relative rank 
do occur, it is evident that the digestible matter gives an undue 
advantage in the case of coarse feeds, and that energy values give 
corn too much credit over the protein feeds, wheat bran and oil meal, 
except when fed to fattening steers, in which case the figures given 
for these values are doubtless the best available. The rank based 
on feed-unit values, on the other hand, is likely to prove the more 
correct in case of feeding growing animals, milch cows and sheep. 

Example 2. — Both cotton-seed meal and linseed meal can be 
bought at $32 a ton, gluten feed at $25 a ton, and dried distillers' 
grains at $28 a ton, which should be bought for feeding dairy cows, 
supplementary to corn silage and clover hay. By similar methods of 
calculation as before we have the following data : 

Example 2, Details of Cost 





Feed 


Cost 
per 100 
pounds, 

cents 


Digestible 
matter 


Energy values 


Feed units 


No. 


Total 


Cost 

per 

pound, 

cents 


Total 


Cost 

per 

therm, 

cents 


Total 


Cost 
per 
unit, 
cents 


1 




125 
140 
160 
160 


80.6 
88.6 
80.6 
77.7 


1.55 
1.58 
1.99 
2.06 


79.3 

79.2 
84.2 
78.9 


1.58 
1.77 
1.90 
2.03 


.9 
.9 
.8 
.9 


1.13 


2 
3 

4 


Distillers' grains 


1.26 
1.28 
1.44 









RELATIVE VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 85 

As these feeds are all high-protein feeds and adapted to feeding 
dairy cows, relative cheapness is the important consideration in this 
case, and we note that the feeds rank in the following order by all 
three methods in this respect : Gluten feed, distillers' grains, cotton- 
seed meal, and oil meal. With the roughage on hand, corn silage and 
clover hay, the feeds may be given preference in the order given. If 
only starchy roughage were available, cotton-seed meal or oil meal, 
being richer in protein than the two others, would be more desirable 
feeds, unless their cost were greatly against them. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give three methods by which the relative value of feeding stuffs may be 

determined. 

2. State the special advantages of each one of these methods. 

3. What is the relative value of the following feeds for fattening steers, at 

the prices given, according to the different methods stated: Clover 
hay, at $12 per ton; cornstalks, at $4 per ton; alfalfa hay, at $15 
per ton; shelled corn, at 50 cents per bushel; oats, at $30 per ton, and 
wheat bran, at $25 per ton? 



CHAPTEE XI 
MANURIAL VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Fertility in Feeds. — When a farmer buys feed for his stock the 
fertility which is contained therein is often not taken into considera- 
tion, especially in the central or western States, where the supply 
of fertility in the soil, as a rule, has not as yet been depleted by 
continuous cropping. Farmers in the older sections of our country, 
and in the countries of the Old World, who pay out enormous sums 
of money annually for commercial fertilizers, are more likely to con- 
sider the manurial value of feeding stuffs. In addition to furnishing 
feed for farm animals, all plant materials supply valuable fertilizer 
ingredients (nitrogen and mineral matter) which largely go into the 
manure and aid in restoring the fertility of the farm land that has 
been lost through the removal of agricultural crops. Under other- 
wise similar conditions the feeds that furnish the largest quantities 
of fertilizing ingredients should, therefore, be selected. We under- 
stand by manurial value of feeds the value which these would have 
if applied directly as manure on the land. This value is figured on 
the basis of the amounts and cost of the three fertilizer constituents, 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, which have definite and fairly 
constant market values. Table V in the Appendix shows that a ton 
of alfalfa hay, e.g., contains 44 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of 
phosphoric acid, and 34 pounds of potash ; these amounts of fertilizer 
constituents would be worth, at a low valuation (15 cents per pound 
of nitrogen, 4 cents per pound of phosphoric acid and potash), $8.36 
(Fig. 10). 1 

If a farmer buys a ton of alfalfa hay, he therefore receives, in 
addition to the energy for feeding purposes contained therein, an 
amount of fertilizer constituents which would cost $8.36 if bought 
in the form of commercial fertilizers. In the same way, the ferti- 
lizer value of Indian corn would be $5.64; oats, $6.63; wheat bran, 
$11.55; linseed meal, $18.75, and cotton-seed meal, $23.36. 

These figures make up a large proportion of the market values 
of the feeds ; a study of them will show that the most expensive feeds, 
which are all high-protein feeds, have, generally speaking, also the 

1 Present market prices vary considerably from the figures used in 
these calculations. 

86 



MANURIAL VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS 



87 



highest manurial values. Where there is a choice between different 
feeding stuffs, the contents of valuable fertilizer ingredients in the 
feeds should receive careful consideration. By way of illustration 
we may bring together in a table some of the common feeding stuffs : 

Fertilizer Ingredients of Some Common Feeds Contained in One Ton 





Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
acid 


Potash 


Coarse Feeds: 

Timothy hay 


19 
12 
39 

44 

135 

108 

110 

80 

53 

32 


7 

8 

11 

10 

58 
33 
7 
32 
58 
13 


28 


Corn fodder 


22 


Clover hay 


17 


Alfalfa 


34 


Concentrates: 

Cotton-seed meal 


17 


Linseed meal (old-process) 

Gluten meal 


27 
1 


Dried brewers' grains 


4 


Wheat bran 


32 


Indian corn 


8 







We note that among the coarse feeds the legumes are richer than 
the grasses, not only in nitrogen, but also in potash, and slightly 
so in phosphoric acid. Cotton-seed meal, oil meal, and gluten meal, 
among the concentrates, are all high in nitrogen, but, unlike the 
first two, gluten meal is greatly deficient in both phosphoric acid 
and potash. Corn is very low in all three fertilizer ingredients, 
and brewers' grains are low in phosphoric acid and potash, especially 
the latter. Feeds of high fertilizer values should, under otherwise 
similar conditions, be preferred to those of relatively low fertilizer 
value if they serve equally well the purpose in view. Corn is, there- 
fore, other things being equal, worth less to the farmer than is 
wheat bran, and linseed meal and cotton-seed meal are worth more 
than either. 

Fertility Retained by Farm Animals. — The amounts of the 
fertilizer ingredients of feeding stuffs retained by farm animals in 
their bodies or made use of in their products will vary with different 
animals, and with the same animals at different periods of growth. 
The following table 2 shows the proportions of nitrogen and ash 
constituents voided by animals or obtained in animal products, 
according to the English agricultural scientists, Lawes and Gilbert, 
of the Rothamsted Experiment Station : 

2 Warington, "Chemistry of the Farm,'' 21st edition, 1913, p. 214. 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Quantities of Nitrogen and Ash Constituents Voided by Animals or Obtained in 

Animal Products 





Per cent of nitrogen 


Per cent of ash constituents 




Obtained 
as animal 
product 


Voided 

as liquid 

excrement 


In total 
excrement 


Obtained as 

live weight 

or milk 


Voided in 
excrement or 
perspiration 


Horse at rest .... 
Horse at work. . . 
Fattening ox ... . 
Fattening sheep. . 
Fattening pig .... 

Milch cow 

Calf fed on milk . . 


None 

None 

3.9 

4.3 

14.7 

24.5 

69.3 


57.0 
70.6 
73.5 
79.0 
64.3 
57.4 
25.6 


100 

100 
96.1 
95.7 
85.3 
75.5 
30.7 


None 

None 

2.3 

3.8 

4.0 

10.3 

54.3 


100.0 
100.9 
97.7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 
45.7 



We note that milch cows void in the total excrement about 75 
per cent of the nitrogen contained in the feed and about 90 per cent 
of the ash constituents. Young growing animals give somewhat 
similar quantities, while fattening animals void about 90 per cent 
of nitrogen and 96 per cent of the ash materials in the liquid and 
solid excrement. 3 Considering the relation between the different 
classes of farm animals on most stock farms, young and old, milk- 
producing and fattening animals, etc., we may assume that at least 
SO per cent of the entire mammal value of the feeding stuffs fed 
on the farm will be voided in the solid or liquid manure of the ani- 
mals and will contribute to maintain the fertility of the land when 
the manure is applied thereon. The direct value of feeding stuffs 
for fertilizer purposes is, therefore, obtained by taking 80 per cent 
of the total fertilizer value calculated from Table V in the Appendix. 

-When a farmer sells a ton of alfalfa hay, he sells fertilizer 
materials that if purchased in the form of common fertilizers would 
cost him over $8. He sells the amounts of fertilizers off his land in 
every ton of straw, hay, and other crops, as shown in the table. If 
he sells 2000 pounds of milk (232 gallons), $1.97 worth of fertility 
leaves the farm with it ; with a ton of butter, 38 cents ; with a ton of 
beef, $9.06 ; with a ton of pork, $5.93, etc. According to Burkett, 
a farmer selling hay sells, in the form of fertilizer value, one-half 
as much as he receives ; if he sells pork, he receives twenty times as 
much for it as the value of the fertilizers contained in it; if milk, 
forty times, and if butter, one thousand times. 4 

These figures show plainly that, so far as maintenance of the 
fertility of the land goes, it is a better plan for a farmer to sell 

3 Wisconsin Report 13, p. 270 et seq. 
*" Feeding Farm Animals," p. 311. 



MANURIAL VALUES OF FEEDING STUFFS 



89 



animal products than grain or hay. The depletion of fertility from 
the farm is reduced to a minimum through the sale of these products. 



COnON-SLED MEAL 
UNSEED MEAL 
BUCKWHEAT MIQOUNGS 
DRIED DISTILLERS' GRAINS 
MALT 5PR0UTS 
GLUTEN FEEO 
DRIED BREWERS' GRAINS 

WHEAT BRAN 

CLOVER HAY 

WHEAT 

OATS 

INDIAN CORN 

BARLEY 

TIMOTHY HAY 

WHEAT STRAW 

MILK 

POTATOES 

CREAM 

MANGELS 

BUTTER 



20 40 60 60 100 120 WO 160 180 200 220 




NITROGEN PHOSPHORIC AGO POTASH MAWffilAL VALUE PER TON 



FiG.lO.-Manurial value of feeding stuffs (nitrogen valued at 15 cents per pound, phosphoric 
acid and potash, 4 cents per pound). 

QUESTIONS 

1. Explain what is meant by the manurial values of feeding stuffs 

2. Name some feeds that are especially high m fertilizer ingredients, also 

some that are low. . . , . ,, 

3 What percentage of nitrogen and of ash constituents are voided in the 
total excrement liv (a) milch cows; (6) fattening steers? 

4. Why is it a poor practice to sell hay or straw from a farm? 

5. What is the value of the fertility obtained in a ton of milk; a ton of 

pork; a ton of alfalfa hay? 



PART II 

DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 
A. COARSE FEEDS 

CHAPTER XII 

GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 

Farm animals depend on green feed for their sustenance for a 
considerable part of the year, the period varying according to cli- 
matic conditions, from about four months during the summer time 
in the North to nearly the entire year in the regions more favored in 
this respect, in the South and Southwest. During this time the 
stock, as a general rule, receive no feed but what they find growing 
in the pasture, on the plains or mountain ranges. It is only in 
sections where somewhat intensive systems of farming have been 
introduced that other feed is provided for the stock during this 
period, as in the case of dairy cows in late summer and fall. Both 
because of the length of time during the year when farm animals 
depend wholly or mainly on pasture grass for their feed, and be- 
cause grazing is universal throughout the country at some time of 
the year, pasture grasses form a most important source of feed for 
our livestock. 

I. PASTURES 

Pastures. — We distinguish between natural and artificial 
pastures. The former are self-sown and consist largely of native 
grasses. These are the permanent pastures generally found in hilly 
or wooded regions in the northern States and in the western United 
States, where wild native grasses cover the wide plains and ranges. 

With Spillman we may consider that the United States consists 
of six different agricultural sections, each one of which is char- 
acterized by the growth of special plants of agricultural value. 
These sections, with some of the main grasses and clovers grown in 
pastures and meadows in the different sections, are given below, 1 

1. The Timothy Region (northeastern part of the United States, as 
far south as a line from Virginia to Kansas, and east of a line from Kansas 
to eastern North Dakota) : Timothy mixed with red clover or pure seeding, 
red top, Kentucky blue grass, orchard grass, fescue grass. 

2. The Cotton Belt: Cowpeas, Johnson grass, soybeans, Bermuda grass, 
crab grass, Japan and crimson clover. 

1 Cyclopedia American Agriculture, vol. ii, p. 42. 
90 . 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 91 

3. The Gulf Coast Region ; Crab grass, beggar weed, "Mexican clover, 
velvet bean, carpet grass. 

4. The Plains Region: Alfalfa, brome grass, foxtail and broom corn, 
millets, sorghum. 

5. The Rocky Mountain States: Alfalfa, timothy and clover, orchard 
grass, wheat and oat hay. 

6. The Pacific Coast: Alfalfa, grain hay (wheat, oats, and barley), 
timothy and 'clover, orchard grass, velvet grass. 

The area devoted to permanent pastures is gradually decreasing 
with the development of more intensive systems of agriculture 
throughout the country and the settlement of the western ranges. 
The highest value of good farm land cannot be reached by keeping 
it in permanent pasture. Arable land so occupied will generally 
yield only a fraction of the feed that would be secured by a more 
intensive system of culture from annual cultivated or hoed crops 
or perennial legumes. According to good authorities, an acre of 
alfalfa, if used as green feed (soiling, p. 95), will give as much 
nutritive forage as four acres in permanent pasture. In the experi- 
ments conducted at the Pennsylvania station, three to five times as 
much digestible feed was produced per acre by means of soiling 
crops, e.g., rye and corn, or corn and clover, as by pasturage 2 
(Fig. 11). 

Care of Pastures. — The low returns in feed materials secured 
from permanent pastures are generally due to the fact that they re- 
ceive little or no attention in the way of remedial measures; they 
are left to take care of themselves and are therefore likely to pro- 
duce but little feed. Under a correct system of management, 
pasture lands are fertilized with farm manure or a complete com- 
mercial fertilizer every few years, in the fall or spring, and lime 
added as needed; they are harrowed, if possible, and seeded with a 
mixture of grasses and legumes in open places. Weeds are kept 
down by going over them with a mower once or twice in the season. 
Stock should, furthermore, not be turned in early in the spring, 
when the young plants would be seriously injured or checked in their 
growth by grazing and tramping, and only a limited number of 
animals are pastured, so that the grass will not be eaten off too 
closely to enable the plants to resume a quick growth. Drainage 
of pasture land is also important, as a regular but not excessive 
water supply is essential to a healthy and rapid growth of plants. 
The amount of feed that pasture land can supply will doubtless be 
largely increased by adopting a system of management similar to 
that just suggested. 

-Pennsylvania Report, 1889, p. 101. 



92 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

In describing the Roberts pasture at the Cornell University 
Farm, Professor Roberts states that after the pasture was well 
established it carried fully three times as many cattle per acre as the 
average pasture of the State of New York. 3 The major factors in 
securing this result were: 

" 1. The clovers were not allowed to disappear. 

" 2. The stock was not turned on to the pasture in the spring 
until the soil was well settled and the grass well started. 

" 3. It was not overstocked early in the season ; the plants thus 
had an opportunity to tiller and get a firm hold on the soil. 

" 4. It was mowed early in June." 

r • ■ •■ ■" amasmmmmmm • ■ ; 



Fig. 11. — Shade trees and a running stream in the pasture make for the health and comfort 
of farm animals. (Cornell Station.) 

The artificial pastures are grown in rotation with other crops; 
they are generally sown with a mixture of grasses and legumes, and 
remain in grass for a period ranging from only one or two years 
to a series of years, according to the system of rotation adopted. 
The yields of feed materials obtained from an acre of land in the 
case of these pastures are also, as a rule, considerably smaller than 
those secured by growing annual cultivated or hoed crops. 

Pasture Grasses. — There are over one thousand different spe- 
cies of native and introduced grasses grown in the United States at 
the present time. Of this number about fifty are found on the 
market, and only about a dozen make up our main cultivated species 
in pastures and meadows. 

Among the more important tame perennial grasses in this 
country may be mentioned Kentucky blue grass (or June grass), 
timothy, orchard grass, meadow fescue, red top, smooth brome grass, 

'"Pastures in New York," Cornell Bulletin 280. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 



93 



r) f e grass, and Bermuda grass. The characteristics and method of 
seeding, special adaptation, and agricultural value of these and other 
tame grasses are discussed in standard works on agronomy or forage 
crops, and will not he considered here (see p. 177). The various 
grasses differ considerably in chemical composition and feeding 
value, and differences due to the stage of development are also of 
importance. 

Chemical Composition.— The chemical composition of some of 
the common pasture grasses is shown in the following table : 

Composition and Digestibility of Pasture Grasses, in Per Cent 



Pasture grass 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy 

Orchard grass 

Red top 

Italian rye grass 

Meadow fescue 

Bermuda grass 



Moisture 



80.0 
65.1 
61.6 
73.0 
65.3 
73.2 
69.9 
71.7 



Ash 



2.0 
2.8 
2.1 
2.0 
2.3 
2.5 
1.8 
2.1 



Digestible 



Protein 



2.5 
2.8 
1.5 
1.2 
1.9 
1.5 
1.6 
1.3 



Carbohy- 
drates 
and fat 



11.2 
21.5 
21.3 
14.5 
22.4] 
14.2 
19.7 
14.3 



N. R. t 



1 : 



4.5 
7.7 
14.2 
12.1 
11.8 
9.5 
12.3 
11.0 



We note that the moisture contents of pasture grasses range from 
60 per cent to 80 per cent, and in the case of very young plants, 
especially of Indian corn or legumes, it may even go over 90 per cent. 
The proportion of nutrients that animals on pasture receive in the 
early season is, therefore, very small, and they have to consume 
large amounts thereof to maintain their body weights. Unless they 
receive a feed of dry roughage in addition, they will not be likely to 
increase in weight or maintain a fair production on such immature 
forage crops. Most of the analyses given in the table show the 
average composition of the grasses at the time of bloom, when they 
would be cut for hay, while the pasture grass was cut and sampled 
at a rather immature stage. This explains why the nutritive ratio 
of pasture grass is 1 : 4.5, while the ratios of the other grasses 
approach or exceed 1 : 10. Timothy is seen to have the widest 
nutritive ratio, viz., 1 : 14.2. 

Grasses are generally sown in mixtures with clover or other 
legumes, since the growing habits of the different plants differ, and 
a permanent palatable herbage will thereby be secured throughout 
the season. Grasses and hay crops, like other crops, will yield the 
largest amount of nutritious feed when grown on well-fertilized 



94 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

land. Where farm manure is available, it is generally put on the 
pasture or meadow during the fall or early spring. Artificial fer- 
tilizers applied in the fall or spring make valuable substitutes. 
Nitrogenous fertilizers favor especially the growth of the grasses, 
while the clovers and other legumes are mostly benefited by potash 
and lime fertilizers. There are many experiments on record show- 
ing that the application of fertilizers on grass lands will give good 
returns in increased crop yields and an improved quality of the crop. 

Value of Pasturage. — Pasture grasses furnish a very nutritious 
and highly palatable feed for all classes of farm animals ; it is the 
best feed for milk-producing animals that we have, and these pro- 
duce the largest amount of milk when on good pasture. During 
the summer and early fall, pasture forms, as a rule, the sole feed 
for cattle and other farm stock, and when there is an abundance of 
green feed the cheapest gains and most economical production are 
made at this time. On account of the watery growth during early 
spring, stock should not be turned out too early, both for the good 
of the pasture and the stock. A feed of dry roughage, if available, 
or of good silage at this time, as well as late in the season, will pro- 
duce better results than pasturage alone. 

Feeding grain to cows on good pasture has not shown immediate 
direct results, so far as dairy production is concerned, according to 
investigations conducted at a number of experiment stations, 4 but 
cows are brought to a better body condition by receiving grain while 
on pasture. They are also likely to maintain their flow of milk 
longer during the balance of the lactation and to do better the fol- 
lowing lactation period than if no grain is fed (p. 243') . On scant 
or dried-up pastures it is necessary to supply additional feed, either 
green soiling crops, hay, or grain feed, in order that the flow of milk 
may be maintained. This is so much the more important as a short- 
age of pasture feed is likely to come at a time when extreme hot 
weather and flies tend to make cows uncomfortable and largely re- 
duce their milk production. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name six different agricultural sections of the United States, with 

characteristic pasture grasses and hay crops grown in each. 

2. Why are only low yields obtained from many permanent pastures? 

Outline a correct system of pasture management. 

3. How much moisture, digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat are 

generally present in pasture grasses? 

4. Give the characteristic differences between hay from grasses and legumes. 

4 Cornell (N. Y.) Bulletins 13, 22. 36, and 49; North Dakota Bulletin 
16; Kansas Report, 1888; West Virginia Bulletin 109. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 95 

II. SOILING CROPS 5 

The soiling system consists in furnishing farm animals a suc- 
cession of green feed in the stable or enclosures during the entire 
summer period. This system has long been practised by European 
dairy farmers; it became known in this country mainly through the 
essays on " Soiling of Cattle," by Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts, 
written nearly one hundred years ago. 

The main advantages of the system as compared with pasturage 
may be briefly stated as follows : 

1. Less land is required to produce the feed necessary for a cer- 
tain number of animals than with pasture. 




Fig. 12. — Indian corn grown for the silo or for soiling. ("Productive Farming," Davis.) 

2. There is no waste through tramping, lying down on the grass, 
or fouling with manure ; the feed is cut at the proper time, and is 
always fresh and palatable (Fig. 12). 

3. Less fencing is required, as cows need only a small enclosure 
for exercise under the soiling system. 

4. The cattle are often more comfortable and in better condition 
when fed green feed in the stable than when left to find their own 
feed in the pasture, with the uncertainties as to condition of pasture, 
weather, etc. 

5. The production of a large and even flow of milk is therefore 
favored, or a uniform increase in live weight in the case of fattening 
stock. 

6. All the manure is saved and the fertility of the farm is there- 
fore better maintained than under pasturage. Quincy gives as his 
experience that this saving alone is " a full equivalent for all the 

5 Adapted from an article on this subject by the author in Cyclopedia 
American Agriculture, vol. ii, pp. 509-574. 



96 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



labor and expense of raising, cutting, and bringing in the feed, 
feeding, currying, and other care of the cattle." 

Disadvantages. — Against these advantages, there are the follow- 
ing disadvantages of the system : The increase in labor required to 
prepare the soil ; to plant, harvest, and haul the various green crops, 
and to feed the herd. The last point is of the greatest importance, 
as the feed must be cut regularly once or twice every day, rain or 
shine, no matter how pressing other farm work may be. The sys- 
tem also calls for much skill and care in planning for and planting 
the succession of green crops for the .season, and can be successfully 
adopted only under an intensive system of farming, on land that is 
kept in a high state of fertility and suited to the growing of large 
crops of green forage. 

Partial Soiling. — This is a modified soiling system in which 
green forage crops are fed supplementary to pasturage at the time 
when the pastures cannot be depended upon to furnish sufficient feed 
for the stock, viz., during late spring and, especially, during the late 
summer and fall months. This system is of the highest value to 
dairy farmers without silos, and will likely be more generally adopted 
in the future with the development of our dairying industry. 

Soiling Crops. — Among crops that have proved satisfactory 
soiling crops may be mentioned : Indian corn, alfalfa, clover, vetch, 
sorghum, peas, oats, winter grains (cut before blooming), soybeans, 
cowpeas, rape, millet, etc. In the eastern and central States fodder 
corn is probably the most valuable soiling crop, and alfalfa, wherever 
it grows well. The latter crop is all-important for soiling dairy 
cows in the irrigated regions in the West, where it is often the only 
forage crop grown and fed. Peas, peas and oats, and rape also rank 
high as soiling crops, the last crop especially for sheep and hogs. 

The chemical composition of the more important soiling crops 
will be seen from the following table : 

Composition of Important Soiling Crops, in Per Cent 





Moisture 


Ash 


Digestible 






Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 
and fat 


N. R., 
1 : 


Fodder corn 

Alfalfa 

Red clover 


79.3 

71.8 
70.8 
79.4 
62.2 
76.6 
79.7 
84.7 


1.2 
2.7 
2.1 
1.1 
2.5 
1.8 
1.6 
1.3 


1.0 
3.6 
2.9 
.6 
2.5 
2.1 
1.8 
1.8 


12.8 
13.0 
16.5 
12.3 
20.5 
15.0 
11.1 
7.6 


12.8 
3.6 
5.7 


Sorghum 

Green oats 


20.5 

8.2 


Green rye 

Peas and oats 


7.1 

6.2 


Canada field peas 


4.2 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 



97 



Succession of Soiling Crops. — The succession of soiling crops 
to be grown, and the details in carrying out either full or partial 
soiling, will vary greatly according to climatic conditions and the 
crops adapted to each locality. An extensive literature has been 
published by our experiment stations and the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture relating to this system. The following 
references include the more important experiment station publica- 
tions relating to soiling conditions in the various States: 

Connecticut (Storrs) Bulletin 9; Reports, 1891, 1895. 

Iowa Bulletins 15, 19. 23, 27; Circular 12. 

Kansas Bulletin 125. 

Maryland Bulletin 98. 

Massachusetts Reports, 1887-1891, 1893; Bulletins 72 and 133. 

Michigan Bulletin 223. 

Mississippi Bulletin 95. 

New Jersey Bulletin 158; Report, 1902. 

Pennsylvania Reports, 1889. 1904-1905; Bulletins G5, 75, 109. 

South' Dakota Bulletin 81. 

Utah Report, 1892; Bulletin 15. 

Vermont Bulletin 158. 

Wisconsin Report, 1885; Bulletins 103, 235. 

Ontario (Guelph) Report, 1890. 




Fig. 13. — The relative expense of producing and feeding soiling crops is considerably greater 
than in the case of silage. (Wisconsin Station.) 

Summer Silage. — It has been shown that the soiling system 
calls for considerable extra labor and is attended with special diffi- 
culties during rainy and stormy weather; it may, moreover, break 
down more or less in seasons of extreme drought. For these and 



98 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

other reasons, it has largely been superseded during late years among 
dairy farmers in eastern and central United States by feeding 
summer silage. We shall see that the silage can be preserved per- 
fectly for feeding during the summer months, and it has the advan- 
tage over soiling crops in at least three ways : Convenience of feed- 
ing, uniformity, and palatability (p. 153). The practice of feeding 
summer silage, either of Indian corn, clover, or alfalfa, is, therefore, 
being adopted by more and more stockmen, and the soiling system 
is becoming less important with every year. By either system a 
maximum and uniform production may be secured during the try- 
ing weather conditions of late summer or early fall, and either 
system is a great step in advance of the practice still followed by 
many farmers of leaving stock to subsist on largely burnt-up 
pastures 6 (Fig. 13). 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the soiling system? Give its main advantages and its disad- 

vantages. 

2. What is (a) partial soiling? (b) summer silage? 

3. Name some of the more important soiling crops and their characteristics. 

III. HAY CEOPS 

Hay Crops. — In northern countries, where snow covers the 
ground during a part of the year, it is necessary to provide winter 
feed for the stock from forage crops harvested during the summer 
and fall. The main hay crops are grasses and clover, which are cut 
at the appropriate time (p. 58) and air-dried (cured), after which 
they are stored in hay barns or shed, to be fed as required during the 
winter and spring, until next year's forage crops become available. 

Hay raising forms an important agricultural industry in our 
country, the hay crop ranking next to Indian corn in value. Over 
72,000,000 acres were sown to hay and forage crops in 1909, the 
most important kinds being timothy and clover mixed, " wild, salt, 
and prairie hay,"' and timothy alone. Each of these makes up about 
25 per cent of the total acreage of hay and forage crops. Hay crops 
of relatively minor importance, when the whole country is con- 
sidered, but important in their respective regions, are alfalfa (7 
per cent of the total acreage), grains cut green, coarse forage, clover 
alone, millet, and Hungarian grasses, " other tame or cultivated 
grasses," and root forage making up the balance of the acreage. 
More than one-half of the entire acreage in hay and forage crops 

6 Wisconsin Bulletin 235. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 



99 



is grown west of the Mississippi, but the individual crops are quite 
differently distributed. The timothy and clover mixed, or clover 
and timothy alone, are grown largely east of the Mississippi and 
in the North, while prairie hay, grain hay, and root forage are 
grown more extensively in the West than elsewhere. 

Yields of Hay. — The average yield of hay per acre in 1909 for 
the entire country was 1.35 tons, the maximum average yields being 
credited to the Pacific and mountainous divisions, with 1.73 tons, 
and the lowest average yield to the South Atlantic division, with 
1.20 tons per acre. These are average figures only and do not show 
the yields secured by good methods of farming or on irrigated land. 
The yield of hay obtained is dependent on various factors, as the 
character and condition of the soil, the method of management as 
to fertilization, seeding, time of cutting, etc. A good hay field 
will yield from two to three tons of timothy and clover hay to the 
acre. There are, however, authenticated reports of yields of over 
7 tons of well-dried timothy and red top hay, obtained in two cut- 
tings on a Connecticut farm, and an alfalfa field yielded at the rate 
of 6 tons to the acre. 7 These yields were obtained by intensive 
culture and heavy fertilization and seeding; they show what can 
be done under optimum conditions in humid regions. In the 
semi-arid regions under irrigation still heavier yields are secured 
regularly year after year, e.g., in central and southern California, 
on irrigated land, alfalfa will yield 7 or 8 cuttings, averaging a ton 
or more to the acre per cutting. 

Chemical Composition. — The chemical composition and con- 
tents of digestible components of hay crops will be seen from the 
table : 

Composition and Digestibility of Hay Crops, in Per Cent 





Moisture 


Fiber 


Ash 


Digestible 






Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
and fat 


N.R., 
1 : 


Mixed grasses 


15.3 

13.2 

9.9 

8.9 

21.2 

7.1 

10.2 

10.4 


27.2 
29.0 
32.4 
28.6 
23.0 
25.0 
28.5 
30.0 


5.5 
4.4 
6.0 
5.2 
6.3 
3.5 
6.1 
7.7 


4.2 
2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.4 
6.4 
2.9 
3.1 


44.9 
45.3 
45.6 
49.1 
41.0 
48.5 
47.4 
41.7 


10.7 


Timothy 


16.2 


Orchard grass 


9.3 


Red top 


10.2 


Kentucky blue grass . . . 

Bermuda grass 

Johnson grass 


9.5 

7.6 

16.3 


Marsh grass 


13.5 







Cyclopedia American Agriculture, vol. ii, p. 436. 



100 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



Timothy (PJileum pratense) is the common hay crop of north- 
eastern United States, being grown either mixed with red clover or 
in pure seeding. The mixed timothy and clover makes the more 
valuable hay of the two, because of the larger protein content and 
the lower fiber content of this hay. Timothy is a favorite hay 
with farmers and, especially, horse owners; the main reasons for 
this preference are : Clean, good timothy seed is generally available 
at a low price; timothy is quickly established, and usually hold^ 
well ; it may be readily cured into clean, bright hay, which is rather 
free from dust and may be handled without much waste. 

Timothy is especially adapted for feeding horses, while it has 
a relatively low value for growing animals or dairy cattle. For 
these animals it is greatly improved by a liberal admixture of clover. 
The yields of timothy hay obtained depend on the character of the 
soil, the climatic conditions, thickness of planting, and also, to a 
large extent, on the time of cutting. The following table prepared 
by Hunt 8 shows the yield per acre of the dry matter of timothy 
cut at different stages as indicated, according to trials at three 
experiment stations : 

Influence of Maturity of Timothy on Yield of Dry Matter, Pounds per Acre 



Stage of maturity 


Connecticut 


Illinois 


Pennsyl- 
vania 


Average 


Well headed out 


2750 
3300 
3115 

3615 


3285 
3425 
4010 
4065 


2585 
3065 




Full bloom 


3057 


Out of bloom 


(3270) 






Seed nearly ripe 


3582 



The largest yield of dry matter was obtained in all three cases 
when the timothy was cut at a late period of growth, when the seed 
was nearly ripe. The quality of the late-cut hay is poorer than that 
cut earlier, as we have seen, both as regards chemical composition 
and digestibility. Hence it is generally recommended to cut timothy 
when in full bloom or just out of bloom. Late cutting does not 
greatly decrease the palatability of the hay to horses, but renders 
it practically worthless when used as sole roughage for young stock, 
dairy cows, and sheep. 

Eed or alsike clover, according to Henry, should always be sown 
with timothy, for the combination furnishes more and a superior 
quality of hay than timothy alone, even for horses. " Grown to- 
gether, the hay of the first season will consist largely of clover. 

8 " Forage and Fiber Crops of America," p. 59. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 101 

With the close of the second season, most of the clover disappears 
and the decaying clover roots will nourish the timothy which re- 
mains, so that a much larger yield of that grass is thereby obtained. 9 

Kentucky blue grass, often called June grass (Poa prate?isis) , 
is a common grass in the meadows and pastures in northeastern 
United States and also in other parts of the country. It makes. a 
compact sod when once established, is greatly relished by all kinds 
of stock, and has high nutritious properties. 

" Blue grass ripens in early summer, having largely gathered the 
necessary food materials from air and soil during the preceding late 
summer and fall. With the coming of spring it pushes forward so 
vigorously that early in May the fields wear a thick, nutritious car- 
pet of grass, and a little later the seed heads show. With seed- 
bearing late in May, the plant's energies have been exhausted, and 
blue grass enters a period of rest which lasts several weeks. During 
this time there is little growth, and if a midsummer drought 
occurs the plants turn brown and appear to be dying. They 
quickly revive with the coming of the fall rains, and again the 
pastures are green and growing, They have had their rest, and 
each plant is once more busy gathering nourishment for the coming 
season's seed-bearing. The observant stockman soon learns that 
it is not wise to rely on blue-grass pasture for a steady and uniform 
feed supply for his cattle throughout the whole season. Accordingly 
he understocks the pasture in spring, so that the excess of herbage 
during May and June remains to be drawn upon during the mid- 
summer dormant period, or he fully stocks it and makes up the 
later shortage by partial soilage. In some districts it has been 
found profitable to graze blue-grass pastures lightly, or not at all 
in summer, and allow the self-cured herbage to stand for winter 
grazing. Kentucky blue grass is primarily a pasture grass and 
should be so regarded." 10 

Red top (Agrostis alba) is especially valuable for moist lands 
sown in mixtures with other grasses. It is slow in starting growth 
in spring and does not reach full development when other grasses 
in the mixture are ready to be cut, but it produces leaves and stems 
late in the fall and makes a good second growth for pasture. It 
produces an abundance of pasturage on suitable soils, and makes 
a fairly palatable hay of fine stems and numerous leaves, although 
it is not considered equal to timothy hay in quality, and when 
present in timothy reduces the market value of this hay. 

Orchard grass (Dactyl is glome rata) is mostly grown along the 

8 " Feeds and Feeding," p. 167. 
10 Henry, loc. cit., p. 100. 



102 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

southern border of the timothy region, in Virginia, North Carolina, 
Tennessee, and Kentucky (p. 90), although it is recommended for 
many northern States and for a variety of soils. It succeeds well 
in shady places and orchards, but grows in bunches and forms a 
very rough sod. It is generally grown in mixtures with Kentucky 
blue grass and white clover. Orchard grass is one of the earliest 
grasses to start in the spring and is ready to cut before timothy. 
If cut when in bloom or earlier, it makes a hay of very good quality. 
If cut after bloom, the hay is coarse and unpalatable to stock. 

Like red top, orchard grass hay is high in digestible nutrients, 
being higher both in digestible protein and carbohydrates than 
timothy. 11 

Smooth brome grass (Bromus enermis) is a most important 
perennial pasture and hay plant in the eastern part of the northern 
plains region. It occupies a similar place in this region as timothy 
and Kentucky blue grass do in northeastern United States. This 
grass makes a good hay crop for a number of years, and is relished 
by cattle, sheep, and horses. It is especially valuable as a pasture 
grass for Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, but it is not adapted to 
the warm climate of the southern States, or, apparently, to condi- 
tions in the northeastern part of the country. 

Bermuda grass is the foundation of all the best permanent 
pastures in the South, and in many localities is important for hay. 
As the seed is expensive and somewhat uncertain in germination, 
this grass is usually propagated by planting small pieces of sod. 
The yield of hay on rich bottom land may be as much as four tons 
per acre, less on poor soil, and on dry clay hills not worth harvest- 
ing. Its feeding value is about equal to that of timothy. 12 

Johnson grass gives a heavy yield of excellent hay in the South 
and furnishes good grazing for one or two seasons, but is such a 
pest when grown in fields where it is not wanted that its planting 
in clean fields cannot be recommended. It spreads both from seeds 
and by its vigorous creeping root-stocks. 13 Johnson grass is also 
undesirable from the feeder's standpoint, in so far as it may contain 
prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid), if the growth has become rank, and 
fatal results have followed when cattle have eaten of it. It is, 
therefore, a plant that cannot be recommended, in spite of the 
fact that it yields heavily and furnishes a good quality of soiling 
crop and hay, under favorable conditions. 14 

11 U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 100, vi. 

12 Farmers' Bulletin 509. 
"Farmers' Bulletins 279 and 509. 

14 Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 72, iii ; Bulletin 90, iv. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 103 

Marsh Hay. — Along the coast of the New England States there 
are extensive acres of salt marshes that furnish considerable quanti- 
ties of hay for stock feeding. The marshes are cut at low tide, 
generally at a time when the grasses are in bloom. The yield of 
cured hay secured varies from one-half to one ton to the acre. The 
hay from these tide marshes contains about 6 per cent protein, 2 
per cent fat, and 30 per cent fiber ; its digestibility does not differ 
greatly from that of common hay. Throughout the country there 
are also large stretches of marshes that are cut for hay, especially 
in dry seasons. The composition and general value of such marsh 
hay are similar to those of salt marsh hay ; the better kinds of these 
grasses make a fair quality of rough feed, of a similar value as 
cornstalks. 

Market Hay. — The growing of hay for the market is an im- 
portant industry, especially in the northeast and western States. It 
is estimated that about one-fifth of the 1908 hay crop in this 
country, or over 15,000,000 tons, was removed from the farms and 
sold on the local market or shipped to city hay markets. Hay 
markets supervised by an organization of hay dealers are established 
in a number of our larger cities which provide for official inspection 
of the hay sold, and for standard quotations and methods of weigh- 
ing. 15 These markets recognize five grades of hay, viz., the stand- 
ard grades : Choice, No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3, and " No-grade " 
hay. The following kinds of hay are quoted and sold on these 
markets: Timothy, clover-mixed, prairie, midland, packing hay, 
and alfalfa. 16 

The percentages of different grades of timothy on the market 
are about as follows, according to McClure: Choice, 10 per cent, 
and No. 1, 20 to 30 per cent, leaving 60 to 70 per cent of all market 
hay to grade as No. 2, No. 3, or " No-grade." When shipped to the 
market the hay is put up in bales of different dimensions. The 
statement given below shows the sizes of standard hay bales in 
common use. 

Standard Sizes of Hay Bales 

Dimensions funds' 

Small bales {l6XlSX36} 70 " 100 

Middle-sized bales {l8 X22 xll} 100-150 

Large-sized bales 22X28X46 150-250 

"Farmers' Bulletin 508; Vermont Bulletin 171. 

10 The requirements for market hay of the different grades are given in 
Farmers' Bulletin 508 ; see also Woll, Handbook, p. 406 a and b. 



104 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

The best quality of hay is obtained when the meadows are kept 
in grass only for a period of three or four years at the outside. A 
common fault of growers of market hay is to leave the meadows too 
long in grass after weeds and foreign grasses have entered to lower 
the quality. The hay crop should be a part of a regular crop rota- 
tion, which should include some leguminous crop, and a regular 
system of fertilization, so that the fertility of the soil may be main- 
tained and a choice marketable hay produced. Hay is often cut 
at a too late stage of growth, after full bloom has passed. Late 
cutting, faulty methods of curing, the presence of other grasses and 
weeds, injuries from the weather in curing and before baling, im- 
proper baling and loading into cars cause much hay to grade low 
and are sources of great losses to hay growers. Choice hay always 
finds a ready sale, for the demand usually exceeds the' supply. The 
better grades of hay, while more expensive, require a smaller addi- 
tion of concentrates to rations for farm animals than the lower 
grades, and are, therefore, generally speaking, the best kinds to buy. 

Rule for Measuring Hay in the Stack. — Both when hay is 
sold in the stack and in planning for feeding stacked hay to stock, 
it is important to know how to measure hay put up in this way. 
The Government rule used in purchasing hay for army posts has 
given satisfactory results and has been generally adopted. It is 
as follows: 

Multiply the width of the stack in feet by the " over " (i.e., the distance 
of the stack from the base on one side to the base on the other), divide the 
product by 4, and multiply the quotient by the length. This gives the con- 
tents of the stack in cubic feet; for hay that has stood less than 30 days, 
divide by 512; for 30 to 60 days, by 422; over 60 days, by 380. The quotient 
gives the tonnage of the stack. 

Example: A stack is 20 feet wide by 40 feet "over" and 60 feet 
long. 20 multiplied by 40 equals 800. 800 divided by 4 equals 200. 200 
multiplied by 60 equals 12,000. 12,000 divided by 512 equals 23y 3 tons. 10 

QUESTIONS 

1. State the difference between early- and late-cut timothy hay, and the 

relative value of the two kinds of hay. 

2. Give the characteristic features of six of the common grasses, and their 

relative value for stock feeding. 

3. Name the different grades of market hay. 

4. State some Common defects of market hay, and suggest imjirovements in 

the present method of growing hay for market. 

5. Give the Government rule for measuring hay in the stack. 

10 Barnes, " Western Grazing Grounds," p. 139. See also Bureau of Plant 
Industry Circular 131; Woll, Handbook, p. 397. 



CHAPTER XIII 
GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS (Continued) 

I. ANNUAL FORAGE CROPS 

Indian Corn (Zea mays). — The proportion of corn grown espe- 
cially for forage in the United States and fed either green, cured, 
or as silage is relatively small, although increasing with every year. 
A fuller discussion of this crop will, therefore, be given under 
" Cereals." 

When grown for forage, Indian corn is planted thicker than 
when grown for the sake of the grain. The difference in the amount 
of grain and fodder secured by different methods of planting is 
shown by experiments conducted at the Illinois station. 1 In 
these trials dent corn was planted on a rich prairie soil, in rows 
three feet eight inches apart, with kernels from three to twenty- 
four inches apart in the row. The following table shows the main 
results obtained: 

Results of Planting Corn Kernels Different Distances Apart in Rows 



Distance 


Yield per acre 


Digestible substance per acre 


Stover 
per 
acre 


Stover 


between 

kernels in 

row 


Good 
ears 


Poor 
ears 


Stover 


Grain 


Total 


for each 
pound 
of corn 


3 inches 

6 inches 

9 inches 

12 inches 

15 inches 

24 inches 


bu. 

13 
37 
55 
73 
63 
49 


bu. 
46 
39 
22 
16 
11 
6 


lbs. 

3968 
3058 
2562 
2480 
2398 
2066 


lbs. 

2250 
2922 
2977 
3113 
2782 
2141 


lbs. 

6218 
5980 
5539 
5593 
5180 
4207 


tons 

4.8 
3.7 
3.1 
3.0 
2.9 
2.5 


lbs. 

3.6 
1.9 
1.5 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 



We note that the highest yield of good ears, seventy-three bushels 
per acre, was obtained when the grain was planted twelve inches 
apart in the row, and that this method of planting gave the smallest 
proportion of stover (cornstalks) to ear corn. On the other hand, 
the largest yields of stover and of digestible substances per acre 
were secured when the kernels were planted three inches apart in 
the row, and the yield of nubbins per acre was also largest in the 



1 Bulletin 13. 



105 



106 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

case of this planting. The same results would not necessarily be 
obtained on other kinds of soils or under different climatic condi- 
tions, but the effect of thick planting on the growth of corn plants 
would be similar in all cases. The plant is not able to reach its 
full development by thick planting, and the yields of perfect ears 
obtained by this method are relatively small; the total yields of 
feed materials secured from a certain area are, however, likely to be 
larger, the thicker the corn is planted, up to the limit investigated 
in the trials given. Evidently, therefore, where the corn is grown 
for green feed, for silage, or to be cured as fodder, the best method 
is to plant thick, so that but few perfect ears are formed; con- 
versely, if corn is grown for the sake of the grain, the general 
method of thin planting, say in hills 3y 2 by 3% feet, will give the 
best results, and a relatively smaller proportion of cornstalks will 
then be secured. 

Yields of Corn. — Green fodder will yield from about 8 to 20 
tons per acre, containing iy 2 to 4 tons of dry matter; an average 
yield on good land would be about 15 tons of green forage, con- 
taining about 3y 2 tons of dry matter. This is a considerably larger 
yield of feed materials than can be obtained in case of most other 
soiling crops without irrigation. 

Corn makes an excellent soiling crop in regions adapted to its 
culture, and furnishes a large quantity of feed that is greatly relished 
by cattle and other farm animals. If cut early, say before tasselling, 
it will contain only about 10 per cent of dry matter, while at later 
stages of development toward maturity it will contain 25 to 30 
per cent of dry matter. It is largely a carbonaceous feed and is low 
in protein (average digestible protein, 1.1 per cent; carbohydrates 
and fat, 16.1 per cent; nutritive ratio, 1: 15.1). If fed to dairy 
cows or young stock which require considerable protein, it should 
be supplemented with a mixture of suitable protein feeds, like wheat 
bran, gluten feed, oil meal, dried brewers' or distillers' grains, etc. 

Proportions of Nutrients in the Corn Plant. — Even when 
corn is grown for the sake of the grain, a considerable proportion 
of feed materials remains in the stalks and becomes available for 
feeding farm animals. The proportion of ears to stover has been 
determined by a number of experiment stations. The average results 
obtained at four different stations (New Jersey, Connecticut, Penn- 
sylvania, and Wisconsin), are as follows: 2 



1 Pennsylvania Report, 1887. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 

Average Yields of Ear Corn and Stover, Per Acre 



107 





Ears, 
pounds 


Stover, 
pounds 


Average yields. . 
Ratio 


4415 
100 


3838 
87 





About 87 pounds of cured stover were obtained, on the average, 
for every hundred pounds of ear corn, when the corn was grown for 
the sake of the grain ; or, to put it in another way, nearly one-half 
of the weight of the corn crop (46 per cent) is found in the stalks. 
Since 57 per cent of the dry matter of cornstalks has been found 
digestible, and 88 per cent in the case of ear corn, the total amounts 
of digestible dry matter furnished in the stalks are considerable, 
amounting to over one-third of the entire plant under ordinary 
method of corn culture. 

These figures plainly suggest the importance of taking advantage 
of the large amounts of feed materials found in the cornstalks and 
Utilizing these for stock feeding so far as possible. The relation 
between different groups of feed materials in the ears and stalks, 
as given by Armsby, is shown below : 

Digestible Feed Materials in the Mature Corn Plant, in Per Cent 





Crude 
protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Total 
digesti- 
ble 
matter 


Ears 

Cornstalks .... 


75 
25 


61 
39 


85 
15 


63 
37 



Since one-fourth of the entire digestible protein and 37 per 
cent of the entire digestible nutrients of the corn are found in the 
stalks, their utilization for feeding purposes becomes a matter of 
great economic importance. It should be stated that the figures 
in the table make a too favorable showing for cornstalks, for the 
reason that more energy is consumed in the digestion of equal 
weights of stalks than ear corn, and less, therefore, remains for 
nutritive purposes. Making due allowance for this difference, it 
is nevertheless evident that a great waste of national resources has 
been allowed to take place in past years, and is still going on, by 
leaving cornstalks to decay in the fields ; thousands upon thousands 
of acres of cornstalks are left largely unutilized every year, in the 



108 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

corn belt and outside of it. These would furnish good feed for farm 
animals, especially young stock, cattle, and horses doing light work, 
and would produce considerable revenue to the farmer by proper 
handling and feeding with other materials. 

Method of Harvesting. — The method of handling the corn 
crop generally practised in the main corn-growing sections is to 
harvest the grain in the field without cutting the stalks, and to 
turn cattle into the field during late fall and early winter to eat off 
the leaves and tender parts of the stalks, the rest being wasted. On 
the better-managed stock farms, especially in dairy regions, corn 
is cut by machinery and placed in shocks in the field, and the ear 
corn is harvested late in the fall, the shocks of stalks remaining 
in the field until needed for feeding to stock. Owing to the bulky 
nature of the stalks and the slowness with which they are cured, 
they cannot be stored under roof in large quantities. The corn is, 
however, now often husked and run through a shredder in the 
same operation in the late fall, and the shredded corn fodder is 
stacked for feeding during the winter. This makes a valuable feed 
for farm animals and forms a good partial substitute for more or 
less expensive hay. 

Field-curing of Indian Corn. — Considerable losses of nutrients 
occur in the corn fodder when this is left in shocks in the field 
exposed to the severe weather of late fall and winter. These losses 
have been studied at a number of experiment stations, among others 
at the Wisconsin station by Professor Henry and the author. The 
results which, were obtained in studies of the relative economy of 
field-curing and siloing Indian corn (referred to later on p. 157) 
stated briefly show that, as an average of four years' experimental 
work, a loss of 24 per cent of the dry matter and of crude protein 
was found in the case of shocks of corn left in the field for an 
average period of about two months. The results obtained else- 
where have shown that the figures given are rather low for ordinary 
farm conditions. Exposure to rain and storms, abrasion of dry 
leaves and thin stalks, and other factors, tend to diminish the 
nutritive value of the fodder, aside from the losses from fermenta- 
tions, so that very often only one-half of the feed materials originally 
present in the fodder is left by the time this is fed out. Further- 
more, the remaining portion of the fodder has a lower digestibility 
and a lower feeding value than the fodder corn had when shocked, 
for the reason that the fermentations occurring during the curing 
process attack the most valuable and easily digestible components 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 109 

of the nitrogen-free extract, viz., the sugar and starch, which are 
soluble, or readily rendered soluble in the process of digestion. 

Grain hay is commonly made and fed to farm animals in 
western United States, and occasionally in other regions of the 
country as well, when conditions render it necessary or desirable 
to use it for this purpose. Barley, oats, wheat, and rye are used 
for hay-making and for pasturage or soiling. Oats make the best 
hay, while rye and barley are especially adapted for soiling or 
pasturage. The grain crops are, in general, cut for hay when the 
kernels are in the early milk stage ; cut at this stage, they make a 
very nutritious and palatable hay. Oats may be cut a little later 
than this for hay, and barley preferably somewhat earlier, while 
the beards are still soft, so that they will not give trouble in feeding 
the hay. Wheat and barley hay are the common grain hays used 
on the Pacific coast, while oat hay is more generally fed in the 
southern States. Grain hay will yield an average of two to three 
tons of hay per acre on good land. Cut for either soiling purposes 
or for hay, the cereal crops yield forage of excellent quality and 
palatability and furnish large amounts of valuable feed components. 
At the stage given, early milk, the plants are relatively richer in 
protein than during the ripening period, and the nutritive ratio 
is, therefore, then considerably narrower than later on ; hence more 
starchy, and, as a rule, cheaper concentrates may be fed with hay 
cut at this time than at a later stage of growth. 3 

Sorghum is a common soiling crop in the southern and central 
western States, and is also made into hay or silage. It resists 
drought well, and has the further advantage of retaining its green 
leaves late in the season. When intended for hay, it is generally 
sown thickly, using about three bushels of seed to the acre, so as to 
prevent a coarse growth. It is cut for hay at the late milk stage, 
and, for soiling, any time after blossoming till approaching ma- 
turity. When intended for silage, it should be left until mature 
before it is cut (p. 157). On good soils sorghum will yield two to 
four good crops of hay, often aggregating eight to ten tons during 
the season. Matured sorghum may be cut and left shocked in the 
field and fed in the same way as cornstalks, or may be run through 
a shredder. It may be considered to possess a feeding value nearly 
similar to that of fodder corn, ton for ton, although it contains 
considerably less protein and somewhat more fiber than green corn 
(nutritive ratio of Indian corn, 1 : 12.8; of sorghum, 1: 20.5). 

3 In Kentucky Bulletin 175 attention is called to the fact that young 
green rye, wheat, 'and oats contain more protein than green legumes. 



110 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



Serious trouble, and even death, has at times resulted from cattle 
or horses eating second-growth sorghum. This generally occurs 
after periods of frost or extreme drought, when the plants have 
been stunted in their growth and afterwards begin to grow. It 
is due to the formation of a glucoside in the new shoots which sets 
free prussic acid through the action of a ferment. Accidents usually 
have happened when pastures are short and cattle get into a field 
of sorghum, eating considerable of it on empty stomachs. They 
should, therefore, be given some feed before being let into fields of 




Fig. 14. — A field of dwarf black-hull kafir corn, a good grain-sorghum for western States. 

(Ball.) 

such sorghum; since no trouble will occur when second-growth 
sorghum is made into hay or silage, the safer method is to use it 
for one or the other of these purposes. 

The non-saccharine sorghums, so-called grain sorghums, kafir 
corn, milo maize, and durra, are largely grown for the sake of the 
grain in western States; they are also occasionally used as green 
and dry forage, as well as for silage, for cattle, horses, and sheep. 
These sorghums are discussed more fully under " Cereal Grains " 
(Chapter XVI). Second-growth kafir corn and other grain sor- 
ghums sometimes have poisonous properties, under similar condi- 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 111 

tions, as in the case of second-growth sweet sorghum, and must be 
fed with great care in the green condition (Fig. 14). 

Sudan grass {Andropogon sorghum var.) has been recently 
introduced into southern States. It is an annual, drought-resistant 
plant, closely related to the sorghums. It resembles Johnson grass 
somewhat in appearance, but, unlike this grass, it has no root- 
stocks and is not, therefore, likely to become a pest. Sudan grass 
makes a fair quality of hay, giving two cuttings in a season. The 
yields obtained will range from two to eight tons per acre, according 
to climatic and soil conditions. It is well suited for use as a soiling 
crop and may also prove valuable for the silo. This grass promises 
to be of special value to southern agriculture and in irrigated regions 
as a forage to be fed supplementary to alfalfa. 

Millets. — The millets are annual forage plants. They are rarely 
grown for the sake of the seed in this country, as is the case in 
Asia, where millet seed is a common grain crop. They include a 
very large number of different species. Those grown in this country 
may be separated into four groups : The foxtail or common millet, 
broom-corn, barnyard, and pearl millets. The most important of 
the millets for stock feeding are the German millet and the Hun- 
garian grass, both of which belong to the group of foxtail millets. 
Millets are essentially hot-weather grasses and are drought- 
resistant, which renders them especially valuable hay crops under 
semi-arid conditions. They are grown chiefly in central western 
States, like Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri, for the purpose of 
supplementing the hay crop. Under favorable moisture conditions 
they will yield from three to five tons of cured hay per acre. They 
should be cut as soon as the blossoms appear; on account of the 
small, hard seeds and woody stems they make an unsatisfactory 
feed if the cutting is delayed till a later stage of growth. Cut early 
and fed in moderate amounts, the millets make a valuable hay for 
horses, cattle, and sheep. They should not be fed exclusively or for 
long periods at a time to horses, as they are likely to cause digestive 
and other troubles in that case. The millets do not differ greatly 
in chemical composition or feeding value from Indian corn fodder 
or sorghum, but are not relished by stock to quite the same extent. 

Foxtail is a common weed in grain fields and meadows in many parts of 
the country. It is especially troublesome in alfalfa fields in the western 
States. The first crop of alfalfa on old weedy fields is often rendered use- 
less through the growth of foxtail therein, unless it be cut early, while the 
beards are still soft and can be eaten without injury. If cut at this time, 



112 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



foxtail makes a fine and very nutritious hay that compares favorahly in 
feeding value with a good quality of oat hay. The following table shows the 
digestible components of these two kinds of hay: 

Digestible Components of Foxtail and Oat Hays 





Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


N. R„ 
1: 


Foxtail 

Oat hay 


4.3 
4.5 


41.4 
43.7 


.9 

1.5 


10.1 
10.5 



Teosinte is an annual forage plant, closely related to Indian corn. 
It is believed to be the ancestor of our corn, and has similar habits of growth. 
It is not grown as a forage plant outside of the southern States, as it needs a 
long season of hot weatlu?r, abundant moisture, and a rich soil in order to do 
well; under such conditions it is a remarkably vigorous grower, the stalks 
reaching 10 to 12 feet in height, with an abundant supply of leaves and slen- 
der stems, which continue to grow until killed by frost. The Louisiana station 
reports a yield of over 50 tons of green forage per acre of this crop on rich 
alluvial soils. Harvests of 18 to 30 tons per acre are not uncommon, accord- 
ing to Spillman. Teosinte makes one of the best soiling plants in the South 
on account of the immense yields of green forage which it produces. It stools 
freely and sometimes grows as many as 50 stalks from a single seed. Its 
leaves are similar to those of sweet sorghum, but much larger, and the stalks 
contain 8 to 10 per cent of sugar. 4 If cut when from four to five feet high, it 
makes an excellent fodder and will produce a second cutting fully as large as 
the first. If left until September or October, it furnishes good material for 
silage and yields more heavily than either Indian corn or sorghum. 

These remarks apply to conditions in the Gulf States only ; the value of 
teosinte outside of this region is rather doubtful. In green condition it is 
very watery, containing only about 10 per cent of dry matter, with a similar 
percentage of digestible protein as green corn (0.9 per cent), and less than 
one-half as much digestible carbohydrates and fat as corn. 

Japanese cane is another Southern forage plant that has come into some 
prominence of late years. It is a variety of sugar cane, well adapted to the 
climate and soil of the Gulf States. It will do well in any section in which 
the velvet bean will mature seed, i.e., a territory within 200 to 250 miles 
north of the Gulf of Mexico. It is used as a silage crop, for winter pasture, 
or stored as dry forage. The Florida station found it one of the cheapest and 
most economical forage crops that a farmer in that State can grow for silage."' 
The chief value of the plant lies in its high content of carbohydrates, particu- 
larly sugar. Like sorghum, it should be left to mature before cutting, 
whether intended for silage or for dry forage. 



QUESTIONS 

1. State the relation of grain to fodder secured by different methods of 

planting Indian corn. 

2. What proportion of nutrients is found in the ear corn and the corn 

stover in the ordinary method of growing Indian corn? 

3. Describe the value of "Indian corn, grain hay, sorghum, and millets for 

feeding farm animals. 

4 Farmers' Bulletin 509. 

5 Bulletin 105. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 



113 



II. HAY FROM LEGUMINOUS CROPS 

Value of Legumes. — The legume family is of the greatest value 
to the stock farmer in two respects : 

1. The legumes enrich the soil with nitrogenous components 
which have been built up largely from the free nitrogen of the air 
by the bacteria found in the root nodules of the plants of this 
family. As the nodules decay their nitrogenous compounds are 
taken up by the host plant and go to increase the nitrogen content 
of these plants. The legumes are, therefore, often spoken of as nitro- 
gen gatherers, or " soil renovators " or " improvers." Deep-rooted 
legumes, like alfalfa and red or mammoth clovers, will leave in the 
roots and stubble a large proportion (one-half or more) of the 
nitrogen substances elaborated from the atmospheric nitrogen dur- 
ing the growth of the plants, and, on their decay, the nitrogen 
compounds are broken down, forming humus and inorganic nitro- 
gen compounds (nitric acid), thus adding to the supply of soil 
fertility. 

2. Legumes furnish larger proportions of protein and valuable 
mineral components, lime, phosphoric acid, and potash available 
for feeding livestock than the grasses. Hay from leguminous crops 
is nearly twice as rich as that from grasses, and larger crops per 
acre are also obtained than from grasses. The average composition 
of hay from grasses and from leguminous plants will be seen from 
the following table : 

Average Composition of Hay from Grasses and Legumes, in Per Cent 





Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Hay from grasses 


7.52 
14.37 


75.64 
64.14 


2.70 
3.23 


Hay from leguminous plants . . 



Assuming that common grasses will yield two tons of hay per 
acre and clovers and other leguminous plants three tons, the latter 
will furnish from two to four times as much protein per acre as 
the common grasses, together with as much more fat and somewhat 
more carbohydrates. They also contain nearly three times as much 
nitrogen and about twice as much potash as does hay from grasses."' 

The more general culture of legumes and the production of 
hay therefrom during the last couple of decades have come largely 
as a result of the teachings of modern agricultural science, and are 

Farmers' Bulletin 10. 



114 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



a hopeful sign of agricultural progress in this country. The legumes 
furnish the cheapest sources of nitrogen and nitrogenous feed com- 
ponents available to the farmer, and by their culture he will, in a 
measure, become independent of both fertilizer and feed manu- 
facturers. 

The most important species of the legumes adopted for feed- 
ing farm animals are clover (red, mammoth, alsike, white, crimson, 

Japan), cowpea, soybean (Fig. 
15), vetch, pea, bean, beggar 
weed, and peanut. Brief men- 
tion will be given in the follow- 
ing pages of these different 
species that are of special im- 
portance as forage crops. 

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)* 
(Fig. 16) is one of our most 
valuable forage plants. In the 
western part of the United 
States it ranks first in impor- 
tance as a soiling and hay crop. 
It was introduced into Cali- 
fornia from Chili in 1854, and 
gradually spread over the irri- 
gated regions of the West, and 
from there eastward, until it is 
now grown in every State in 
the Union, as well as in Canada. 
It requires a deep, well-drained 
and fertile soil, with a perme- 

Fig. 15.— A soybean nitrogen factory. The able Subsoil, for its best develop- 

free nitrogen of the air is changed by the ^-.p^f ar ,f] imrlor nntimnm nnn 

bacteria in the root nodules into forms that "lent, &nQ UHCler Optimum COn- 

are used by the host plant for the elaboration /] jf j nri c w jl1 viplrl pnnrmmm f>rr>r><? 

of protein compounds. (Wisconsin Station.) uiLlullh wm VieiU eilUIIUOUb Cropfe 

of forage. Several cuttings are 
obtained during the season from alfalfa fields, the number increas- 
ing from two to six or more as we go southward. The highest 
yields are obtained on the irrigated land in southern California 
and the southwestern States, where eight to ten tons of hay per 
acre are frequently obtained. As it generally takes about four tons 
of green alfalfa to make a ton of hay, this corresponds to a yield of 
forty tons of green alfalfa per acre. Good alfalfa fields in the 
humid regions will yield at the rate of four to five tons of hay per 

In Europe and Canada often called Lucern. 




GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 115 

acre. When well established and cared for, alfalfa will yield large 
crops for a series of years — at least in the West and Southwest, 
where the plants are not weakened by rigorous cold of winter. 
Weeds that may appear in the first cutting will be choked out by 
the alfalfa if cut before seeding, and later cuttings will give a clean 
hay. As already stated, foxtail is often a bad weed in western 
alfalfa fields early in the season, so that the first cutting of hay 
may cause trouble in feeding cattle, sheep, or pigs on account of 
the rough bristles of the foxtail heads. If this cutting is placed 
in the silo, there will be no difficulty in this respect, as the foxtail 
heads are softened in the siloing process (p. 158). 




Fig. 16. — Alfalfa will furnish an abundance of green feed throughout the growing 
season. It is rapidly becoming one of the most valuable forage crops in the country. 
(Pacific Rural Press.) 

Composition of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is one of the richest forage 
crops American farmers can grow. It contains more protein than 
any of the leguminous plants used for feeding purposes, with the 
possible exception of sweet clover, peas, and vetches. A good quality 
of alfalfa hay contains at least 15 per cent protein, 2 per cent fat, 
and about 25 per cent fiber, while the lower grades contain less than 
10 per cent of protein and over 30 per cent fiber. Compared with red 
clover, alfalfa furnishes a heavier yield of hay that contains more 
protein than clover, and, once established, it will occupy the land 
for a considerable period, while clover, being a biennial, must be re- 
seeded every three years. Alfalfa has a high digestibility and is 
greatly relished by all classes of farm animals. It is used in four 
different ways for feeding, as soiling crop, for hay, silage, or for 
pasture. It is one of our most valuable green feeds, especially for 
cattle, hogs, and sheep; its protein content renders it a highly de- 
sirable feed for dairy cows and young stock. As it has a nutritive 



116 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



ratio of about 1 : 3.6, it is too high in protein for the best results 
when fed alone, even with the animals mentioned, and may, there- 
fore, be supplemented to advantage with Indian corn or other 
starchy feeds. In the corn belt and eastern States the common 
farm-grown feeds are starchy and low in protein, like corn fodder, 
mixed or timothy hay, cereals and roots, and alfalfa is, therefore, 
of special value as a supplemental feed in this important agricultural 
section of our country. It may be partly substituted for wheat 




Fig. 17. — Curing and harvesting alfalfa. ("Productive Farming," Davis.) 

bran or similar feeds in rations for dairy cows, in the proportion of 
about 1% pounds of alfalfa to 1 pound of bran, and the bill for 
concentrates thus greatly reduced. Choice grades of alfalfa will 
nearly approximate wheat bran in feeding value, and can generally 
be produced at a cost less than one-half of what this concentrate 
commands (Fig. 17). 

Alfalfa furnishes an excellent pasture after the first year, under 
certain restrictions, viz., that it is not eaten off too closely, espe- 
cially in the fall, and that cattle and sheep are not put on the pasture 
when hungry and while the dew is on ; otherwise they are likely to 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 117 

bloat, death resulting in severe cases. Alfalfa pasture is especially 
valuable for dairy cows, growing cattle, brood sows, and young 
farm animals of the various classes. It makes one of the best hog 
pastures in the country; an acre will supply sufficient feed for ten 
to twenty hogs, and these will make good gains on it with a small 
grain allowance of corn, barley, or shorts, viz., 600 to 1000 pounds 
of pork for the season. Alfalfa-fed beef goes on the market without 
any grain on the Pacific coast; in the eastern and central States 
such cattle are fattened with corn or small grains with excellent 
results. 

Changes in Composition. — The changes in the chemical com- 
position of alfalfa with the progress of the growing period have 
already been considered (p. 56) ; briefly stated, young plants contain 
most water, ash, and protein (total and amides), and older plants 
'contain most fiber. The digestibility of the plant also decreases 
as it approaches maturity. Owing to the large proportion of valu- 
able feed materials in the leaves and tender parts, carefully-cured 
alfalfa hay cut at the right time, when new shoots are appearing, 
will have a much higher feeding value than hay that has been left 
standing too long, or cured by faulty or careless methods so as to 
lose a considerable portion of the leaves, or that lias been exposed 
to rain storms after cutting. Much of the alfalfa hay is of poor 
quality, from one or more of the reasons just given, especially the 
first — too-late cutting and careless methods of hay-making. Choice 
or prime alfalfa hay 7 is well worth the high price that it commands 
on the hay market in comparison with the lower grades. The 
experience of the Ontario Agricultural College with regard to late- 
cut hay is worthy of note in this connection : 8 " The decrease in 
digestibility is so rapid that by the time the plant has passed the 
full blooming stage, it appears to be unsafe to feed it in large quan- 
tities to any animal. . . . Because of the rapid decrease in feed 
value, also because of the rapidity with which the new crop comes 
on when the old one is removed, and because of the danger in allow- 
ing stock to eat the fodder when the plant becomes hard and woody, 
alfalfa, whether in the pasture field or in the hay field, should not be 
allowed to stand later than the early blossoming stage." 

Red clover (Trifolium pratense) is grown in pure seeding 
mostly for the purpose of seed production; for forage purposes it 
is, as a rule, sown with timothy, and with this plant forms the main 
hay crop in eastern and northern United States. Clover furnishes 

7 Woll, " Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen," p. 40Ga. 

8 Report, 1898. 



118 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

two to four crops a year. The yields obtained vary from two to five 
tons per acre, according to the season and the fertility of the soil. 
The yield of the last crop is especially variable and is frequently 
too small to be worth while cutting. If it is not cut, the clover 
is generally pastured by cattle or sheep. At early stages of growth, 
clover is very low in dry matter, viz., less than 10 per cent, and 
relatively small yields of hay are secured from early cuttings. On 
good land very heavy yields are obtained, however, aggregating 16 
to 20 tons of green clover for the season. The tendency of green 
clover to cause bloat in cattle and sheep may be overcome by feed- 
ing some dry forage prior to turning on to pasture, or by placing 
hay or straw in feed racks in the field. According to Henry, cattle 
and sheep will resort instinctively to the dry feed when bloat 
threatens. 

Experience and chemical analyses have shown that the best time 
to cut red clover for hay is when about one-third of the heads have 
turned brown. The crop then yields the maximum amounts of 
total dry matter and digestible nutrients. Red clover hay is an 
excellent feed for dairy cows, sheep, pigs, and all kinds of young 
stock. It ranks second to alfalfa in feeding value for these animals. 
Clover hay is less adapted to working horses on account of its 
liability to be dusty. This is a disadvantage that hay from all 
legumes has, compared with that from grasses, and comes from 
the larger proportion of leaves in the former ; these are brittle and 
readily crumble into dust unless the clover is carefully cured and 
handled. 

Clover makes an excellent supplementary feed to the corn plant, 
timothy, and other crops grown on the farm, as these are, in general, 
of a starchy character and low in protein and mineral substances. 
In the feeding of growing animals or dairy cows clover may, there- 
fore, make up a part of the ration to great advantage, and is much 
relished by them. 

Besides being a valuable hay and soiling crop, clover makes a 
good silage crop, if properly put up in air-tight, tall silos. The 
main conditions for making good clover silage, or silage from other 
legumes, will be further discussed in the chapter on silos. We 
shall see that the crop must be siloed directly after being cut, before 
it has lost much moisture, and that it is preferably run through a 
cutter, and must be carefully distributed and packed in the silo so 
as to exclude as much of the air as possible. Even well-preserved 
clover silage, as that of other legumes, has often a strong and not 
particularly pleasant odor, and is not quite as palatable to dairy 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 119 

cows or other farm animals as corn silage, as it soon dries out on 
exposure to air. It may, however, be considered of similar feeding 
value as corn silage, and makes a valuable feed for farmers who 
have difficulty in curing clover into hay on account of rainy weather. 
Like other legumes, clover may be safely placed in the silo wet with 
dew or rain. If it has been allowed to dry out before being siloed, 
water should be added as it is elevated into the silo or after each 
load is filled into the silo. 

Mammoth clover (Trifolium medium) is a somewhat later 
variety than red clover, generally maturing three to five weeks later. 
As its name suggests, it has a larger and coarser growth than red 
clover and produces but one crop a year. It is, therefore, frequently 
pastured for several weeks in the early spring, and will make a 
good growth when the stock is removed. It requires a similar soil 
and climate as red clover, and is better able to thrive under un- 
favorable conditions than this crop on account of its stronger root 
system and its perennial growth. It does not make as palatable 
hay as red clover on account of its ranker habit of growth; but its 
ability to do well on relatively poor soils and its perennial character 
make it a valuable hay crop to the stock farmer. 

Alsike or Swedish clover (Trifolium liybridum) is grown for 
both hay and pasture, often in mixture with red clover and timothy, 
or with red clover only. It produces a fine, soft hay that is greatly 
relished by stock and eaten without waste. Alsike flourishes on 
land that is too acid or too moist for other clovers, although it will 
not grow in really wet soils. While red clover usually dies out the 
third year, alsike will often live for several years, a feature which 
greatly increases its value for pasture. 9 

Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum, Fig. 18) is an annual, 
especially valuable as a cover crojD in orchards and for green manur- 
ing. It is also used for pasture, as a soiling crop, and, to a limited 
extent, for silage. It does not make as satisfactory hay as other 
clovers on account of the minute barbed hairs on its blossom heads, 
which become spiky as the heads ripen. Hay from over-ripe crimson 
clover tends to make hair balls, often 3 to 4 inches in diameter, of 
compact, felt-like structure, in the stomachs of animals, especially 
horses, and cases are on record of animals dying as a result of eating 
such hay. 10 The difficulty may be avoided by cutting the hay at 

"White clover {Trifolium repens) is not a hay crop, being used in 
pastures and lawns only, in mixtures with grasses. 

"Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 8; 
Farmers' Bulletin 579. 



120 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



the time of blossoming. This clover is best adapted to the climate 
of the south Atlantic States, and has been especially recommended 
by the New Jersey and Delaware experiment stations. 

Japan clover (Lespedeza striata) is a southern forage plant of 
special value for pasture; it also furnishes a good quality of hay 
if cut when in full bloom. It will yield one to three tons of hay 
per acre on good land, of a quality that is considered equal to the 
best clover hay. According to Tracy, Japan clover, with cotton seed 
as grain feed, is the cheapest milk-producing ration in many sections 




Fig. 18. — Crimson clover. ("Productive Farming," Davis.) 

in the South. It is of great value to southern agriculture as a soil- 
renovator, increasing the nitrogen content and improving the com- 
position and texture of soils that are largely unproductive, so that 
they will grow other crops. It affords valuable pasturage for cattle, 
horses, sheep, and hogs, though the animals must be accustomed to 
it in order to relish it. It is considered by some authorities the 
best pasture plant for the poorer clay soils of the cotton belt. It 
does not differ greatly in composition from red clover, the hay 
being somewhat lower in ash and fiber and higher in nitrogen-free 
extract than red clover hay. 11 

11 Farmers' Bulletin 441. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 



121 



Sweet clover (Trifolium melilotus, Fig. 19) is grown as a 
forage crop to a limited extent in some of the central and southern 
States. It will grow on soils that are too poor in humus for the 
successful production of either alfalfa or red clover. Sweet clover 
may be used as hay, silage, soiling crop, or as a pasture for all 
classes of farm animals. It must be cut before blooming, since 
the plant rapidly becomes coarse and unpalatable to stock after 
this stage. Owing to the presence of a bitter principle (cumarin) 
in sweet clover, animals at first refuse to eat it, but appear to relish 
the plant when once accustomed to it, whether in dry or succulent 
form. Sweet clover stands next to cowpea hay and alfalfa in its con- 
tent of crude and digestible protein, but is also somewhat higher in 
fiber than other legumes. 

Average Composition of Leguminous Hays, in Per Cent 12 





Protein 


Fat 


Fiber 


Ash 


Digestible 




Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
and fat 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 


Sweet clover hay 
Alfalfa 


13.3 
14.3 
12.3 
16.6 


2.1 
2.2 
3.3 

2.2 


26.9 
25.0 
24.8 
20.1 


7.5 
7.4 
6.2 
7.5 


9.9 
11.0 

6.8 
10.8 


40.8 
42.3 
39.6 
41.1 


1:4.1 

1:3.8 


Cowpea 


1:5.8 
1:3.8 



Canada field peas (Canadian peas, Pisum sativum, var. arvense) 
are grown extensively in the States along the northern border of 
our country that are favored with fairly cool summer temperatures 
and a moderate amount of precipitation. Although its culture in 
this country is extending, we are still far behind Canada in taking 
advantage of the possibilities of this crop. Field peas are grown 
for seed or for forage as a soiling crop, for pasture, or cured as 
dry forage. The seed makes a valuable rich grain feed for horses, 
cattle, and sheep, and is generally fed mixed with oats, wheat 
bran, etc. 

Peas are frequently grown in conjunction with oats as a soiling 
crop for milch cows, or for pasturage for sheep and swine, for both 
of which purposes it is of superior value. Large areas of peas 
sown alone early in the spring at the rate of two bushels per acre, 
with a small amount of wheat or oats, are grown in the northern 
mountainous States for sheep and lamb feeding. These are turned 
on to the land when the peas are ripe, and harvest both grain and 

12 Farmers' Bulletin 485 ; Michigan Circular 23. 



122 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



vines, making a gain of about 8 pounds per month while thus 
grazing. An acre of peas will fatten 10 to 15 lambs, putting these 
in the finest possible condition for the market in the course of 70 to 
90 days. A somewhat longer period is required for ewes that are 
lean when first turned into the pasture. Swine will keep healthy 
and make rapid gains on a pea pasture alone when turned in as 
soon as the peas are full-sized. For both these classes of animals 
the growing of field peas presents great possibilities in the northern 
sections of the country where this crop grows to the best advantage. 




Fig. 19. — Sweet clover is an excellent soil builder. Cut for hay at an early stage 
(before blooming), it makes a good quality of hay which resembles alfalfa in composition. 
(Breeders' Gazette.) 

When peas are grown for canneries, the whole crop is now 
generally delivered, and tbe peas are separated from the vines at 
the factory by means of threshers. The vines, which often contain 
many peas with pods, are either siloed and the silage used for 
sheep and steer feeding, or cured into hay. Pea vines make a very 
nutritious hay that is relished better by horses, cattle, and sheep 
than the straw of the grain crops (Stone). If cut before maturity 
and well cured, it appoaches clover hay in feeding value. 13 

13 Delaware Bulletin 41. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 



123 



Vetches. — Only two of the vetches grown in this country are 
of importance for feeding purposes : Common vetch ( Vicia sativa) 
and hairy or Kussian vetch (V. villosa, Fig. 20). The former 
is an annual grown rather extensively for hay on the Pacific coast 
and to some extent in the South. There are two strains : Winter 
vetch, sown in the fall, and spring vetch, sown in the spring. Hairy 
vetch is a biennial, much more hardy than the common vetch, and 




Fig. 20. — A South Carolina vetch field. Hairy vetch will grow in most sections of 
the country, yielding, on the average, about two tons of hay of excellent quality. It is a 
good crop to grow where red clover fails, and also makes a good cover crop. (Breeders' 
Gazette.) 



can be grown almost anywhere in the country, withstanding well 
the winters of northeastern United States. Both vetches make an 
excellent quality of hay and also furnish luxurious pasture that is 
eagerly eaten by farm animals. The yields of hay obtained average 
about 2^2 tons to the acre. Hairy vetch is perhaps the best legume 
for sections where red clover fails, and this is especially true for 
sandy soils. In the northern States it can be used to seed in corn 



124 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



at the last cultivation, and will furnish a subsequent crop for green 
manuring or hay. 14 

Cowpea (Vigna cutjang) is grown for both forage and seed. 
The latter is used as a food for both man and beast. The plant 
reaches its highest development in the South, where it has been of 
untold value in enriching poor soils and furnishing abundant green 
and dry feed for farm animals. During the last decade experiments 
have been conducted in many States with the view to determining 
the value of the cowpea as a forage plant, and its cultivation has 
extended considerably northward as a result. It has been found 
to do well in the lower New England States, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Missouri, and Kansas; in the States east and south of those men- 
tioned its agricultural value is fully established. The entire plant 
has a high feeding value, and it is generally fed, seed and all, to 
farm animals in the South. The Alabama station obtained an 
average yield of about 3600 pounds of hay and 510 pounds of peas 
in trials continued for three years. 15 A good quality of cowpea 
hay possesses a similar value as alfalfa hay, and is nearly as valuable 
as wheat bran, ton for ton; hence it is often used in rations for 
dairy cows to take the place of a portion of the concentrates, as is 
the case with alfalfa. In this way it is often possible to lower con- 
siderably the cost of production of milk and butter fat. In a feed- 
ing trial with dairy cows at Alabama station 16 a saving of 23 per 
cent in the cost of the ration was thus effected by substituting cow- 
pea hay for wheat bran. Experiments have shown that one-half 
of the concentrates fed to cows or fattening steers may be replaced 
by cowpea hay without decreasing the feeding value of the rations. 
The chemical composition of the different parts of the cowpea plant 
is shown in the following table : 

Composition of Parts of the Cowpea Plant, in Per Cent 





Moisture 


Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Fat 


Green forage. . . 
Hay 


83.60 
10.70 
79.30 
14.80 


1.70 
7.50 
2.90 
3.20 


2.40 
16.60 

2.70 
20.80 


4.80 

20.10 

6.00 

4.10 


7.10 

42.20 

7.60 

55.70 


0.40 
2.90 


Silage 

Seed, shelled . . . 


1.50 
1.40 



Cowpeas are often planted with either sorghum or Indian corn, 
especially if the Indian corn is intended for silage; this makes a 



"Farmers' Bulletin 515. 

16 Bulletin 118. 

"Bulletin 123; Experiment Station Record 15, p. 72. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 



125 



very satisfactory combination in regions where the cowpea does well 
and reaches maturity at about the same time as either sorghum or 
corn. Sumac sorghum and some vigorous growing variety of cow- 
pea, like Brabham or Unknown, appear to give the best crops, six 
parts of cowpeas with one part of sorghum making about the desired 
proportionate stand in the mixture. The hay is greatly relished 
by stock if cured properly. 17 

Soybean {Glijcyne hispida, Fig. 21) is of greater importance 
for seed production than for forage purposes, except in the South, 
where its value as a forage plant, for feeding green, as hay or as 
silage, is about as great as for production of seed. It is grown for 
the sake of the seed , throughout the United States about as far 
north as corn will mature. In the Gulf States it will usually yield 
six to ten tons of green forage or silage to the acre and one and one- 
half to three tons of hay. Soybean fodder is a high-protein feed 
that can be produced under practically the same conditions as can 
Indian corn. 18 The composition of the soybean plant is quite simi- 
lar to that of alfalfa, as will be seen from the following table : 

Composition of Soybean Plant, in Per Cent 



Green fodder 

Hay 

Straw 

Silage 

Seed 

Alfalfa hay. . 



Water 


Fat 


Fiber 


Ash 


Digestible 
















Carbo- 










Protein 


hydrates 
and fat 


80.0 


.9 


5.4 


2.1 


2.7 


9.7 


11.8 


4.3 


24.2 


7.0 


10.6 


43.6 


15.0 


1.8 


36.1 


6.1 


2.4 


40.2 


74.2 


2.2 


9.7 


2.8 


2.7 


11.7 


14.0 


16.7 


4.7 


5.0 


28.4 


57.9 


8.1 


2.1 


28.9 


8.8 


10.5 


42.5 



N. R. 



3.6 
4.1 
6.8 
4.3 
2.0 
4.0 



Velvet bean (Mucuna utilis) is another forage crop that is 
highly recommended for southern agricultural conditions. It is 
considered especially suited to Florida, but has a similar range of 
culture as Japanese cane (p. 112). It is grown for both seed and 
forage; in the latter case the crop may be cut for hay when the 
young buds are well formed, allowed to wilt for about 48 hours, and 
cured in shocks for several days; or it may be left in the field 
throughout the winter and fed as needed. The beans contain about 
18.8 per cent protein, 6.3 per cent fat, and 53.7 per cent nitrogen- 
free extract. They are fed in the same manner as cowpeas or cotton 
seed in the South, and are relished by all farm animals except 
horses, that apparently do not care for them. Velvet bean forage 

17 Farmers' Bulletin 458. 

"Cornell Bulletin 310; Delaware Bulletin 96; Farmers' Bulletin 58. 



126 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



has also a high feeding value and should be fed along with other 
kinds of hay or starchy concentrates. Fed in this manner, it makes 
a valuable feed for all classes of live stock. 19 

Florida beggar weed (Desmodium tortuosum) is a sub-tropical 
plant that is grown in the South for either green forage or for hay, 
and is well liked by all classes of farm stock. It has rather woody 
stalks, from three to eight or ten feet high, with abundant leafage ; 
when grown for hay it is cut at the beginning of bloom, three to 
four feet high, when it makes a very fine quality of hay, yielding 
about four tons to the acre. The hay contains about 12 per cent of 



- 

1 


MN^p 






I 


. . .. . 


.r' : ^ •-.-<■ 




\ ' 


****•'*? ^ . . 'A** 




J^l';" 4wp-" Jfc 






P^fefly 


■ W 


■HP-. : ; - : ■:* 






.. *'i 






^f 



Fig. 21. — A field of soybeans, a valuable protein feed, both for seed production and as a 
forage crop. (Wisconsin Station.) 

crude protein and 29 per cent of fiber, on the average, indicating that 
it is of somewhat lower feeding value than alfalfa or clover, ton 
for ton. 20 

Peanut (Arachis hypogea). — This legume is grown for com- 
mercial purposes in the south Atlantic States and westward to and 
including California. The fruit or nut is matured beneath the sur- 
face of the ground, instead of above ground, as in the usual order 
of things. It is an important human food, and the by-products, 
cull nuts, pods, and vines, furnish excellent forage for farm stock. 
The tops of the plant are also often cut and cured in the same 
manner as other legumes, and make a hay of a feeding value almost 
equal to that of clover hay. Peanuts form a valuable substitute for 

19 Farmers' Bulletin .451 ; Division of Agrostology, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture, Circular 14; U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 141, iii. 

20 Division of Agrostology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 13. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 127 

cowpeas, especially on soils that are not adapted to the growing 
of this crop. One to two tons of hay per acre may be obtained by 
planting the Spanish peanut in rows 24 to 30 inches apart and quite 
close in the row. After the hay has been removed, the pods can be 
turned out by means of a plow, and cured and stored for winter 
feeding. Instead of harvesting the crop in this manner, hogs are 
frequently turned in to gather it. 21 

Poisonous Plants. — A number of plants that are poisonous to stock are 
found in different parts of the country, the more important of them being 
loco weeds, larkspur (Astragalus) , death camas, water hemlock (Cicuta), 
common horsetail ( Equisetum ) , etc. Serious losses are often sustained by 
animals eating these plants, especially in western grazing districts where 
sheep, cattle, or horses are kept in large numbers and eat these plants for 
want of better feed. 

Marsh has shown that stock poisoning as a general rule is due to a 
scarcity of feed. 22 He concludes, from his investigations of the subject in the 
western range country and elsewhere, that stock seldom eat poisonous plants 
by choice, but only when induced or compelled by a scarcity of feed. The 
following precautions are recommended: 

" 1. Stock should not be turned out upon the range where there is little 
to eat except poisonous plants. This is especially dangerous when the stock 
have been on dry feed. 

" 2. In a region where certain areas are definitely known to be infested 
with poisonous plants, stock should be kept away. This is especially neces- 
sary when the general range is short, either because grass has not started 
or because it has been overgrazed. When the range is well covered with good 
grasses, herding away from poisonous areas is ordinarily unnecessary. 

" 3. When stock are trailed from one place to another, they should, so 
far as possible, be driven through a country with plenty of good feed. If it 
is necessary to drive them through a locality supposed to be infested with 
poisonous plants, care should be taken to see that the stock are not hungry 
when going through this region. It is much better to make such a drive in 
the afternoon rather than in the morning. Special precautions must be taken 
when it is necessary to pass over a trail that has been used by many others, 
for all good feed will have disappeared and the stock will eat whatever is 
left. Sheep should not be bedded for several successive nights in the same 
place." 

Other sources of poisoning are plants containing prussic acid, such as 
second-growth sorghum and kafir, cornstalk disease, ergot, corn cockle, 

castor beans, etc. 23 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the special points in favor of growing leguminous hay crops? 

2. Discuss briefly the value of alfalfa to the American stock farmer. 

3. Mention the different species of clover used for hay crops, and give the 

main points in favor of each. 

4. Describe the value and uses of field peas, vetches, cowpea, and soybean in 

stock feeding. 

5. Give a number of southern leguminous forage crops and state their main 

uses and feeding values. 

6. Name some of the more important poisonous plants. State where stock 

poisoning most frequently occurs and witli what classes of farm animals. 

7. How may poisoning of stock be best avoided? 

21 Farmers' Bulletin 431. -Farmers' Bulletin 530. 

23 See Chestnut, " Thirty Poisonous Plants of the United States," 

Farmers' Bulletin GO, 1S97; Pammel, "Manual of Poisonous Plants," 
Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1911. 



128 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



III. STRAW OF CEREALS AND LEGUMES 

Straw is the stems and leaves of cereals and legumes after the 
ripe seeds have heen removed. During the latter stage of the vegeta- 
tive period of the plants soluble materials are transferred to the 
seeds, and other parts of the plants are left relatively depleted in 
feed components. Hence we find that straw is low in protein and 
fat and in more valuable carbohydrates, although still high in nitro- 
gen-free extract and likewise high in fiber. Straw from cereals cut 
at different stages of ripening differs considerably in chemical com- 
position and feeding value. Kellner gives the following analyses 
of oat straw cut at three different periods of growth — unripe, ripe, 
and over-ripe : 24 

Composition of Dry Matter of Oat Straw at Different Periods of Ripening, 

in Per Cent 



Unripe . . . 

Ripe 

Over-ripe 



Crude 
protein 



10.1 
4.9 
4.3 



Fat 



1.9 
1.2 
1.4 



Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 



50.6 
48.6 
36.9 



Fiber 



29.4 
37.8 

49.8 



Aah 



8.0 
7.5 
7.6 



The amount of net energy yielded in the digestion of straw cut 
at the usual time is small, and in some cases, like coarse rye or 
wheat straw, it is not sufficient to maintain an animal at an even 
body weight. Oat and barley straw is more valuable than the 
other kinds of straw, and is used as a regular part of the feed 
rations of horses and fattening cattle, especially in European coun- 
tries. It is generally cut fine and fed wet, mixed with concentrates 
or sliced roots. It is fed in this way both for the net nutrients that 
it supplies and also, perhaps largely, because it is believed to act 
as a filler and enables animals to digest their grain feed more 
thoroughly when thus diluted with cut straw. 

The different kinds of cereal straw have, on the average, the 
following chemical composition : 3 to 4 per cent total protein ; 36 
to 39 per cent fiber; 36 to 46 per cent nitrogen-free extract, and 1 
to 2 per cent fat. 

The digestibility of the dry matter and the nitrogen-free extract 
is low, viz., 40 to 50 per cent, and that of protein only 20 to 30 
per cent. The total digestible matter in straw ranges from 37 to 



" The Scientific Feeding of Animals," p. 1G9. 



GREEN FORAGE AND HAY CROPS 129 

43 per cent. Practical feeding experience and the results of chemi- 
cal analyses and digestion trials suggest that cereal straw ranks in 
the following order as regards feeding value : Oat, barley, rye, and 
wheat straw. Straw is often used for feeding in the stack. On 
grain farms where straw is abundant, only little stock is, as a rule, 
kept, and the straw, if utilized at all, is fed in the stack, or baled and 
shipped to be used for bedding. 

Cornstalks. — The straw of the Indian corn plant, known as 
stover, cornstalks, or corn fodder, is an important rough feed on all 
American farms where corn is grown. It is either left standing in 
the field where cattle nibble the leaves and tender parts during the 
fall and winter months, or it is cut and cured in the field in shocks 
that are later brought in and used as feed for cattle, sheep, and 
horses (p. 108). The cornstalks are now often run through a 
shredder in the same operation as the shock corn is being husked, 
and the shredded fodder is stacked for use in the fall and winter. 
The shredded cornstalks make a fair quality of rough feed, which is 
generally eaten up clean by farm animals. This is never the case 
when whole cornstalks are fed, and rarely so when they are cut 
before feeding. Shredded fodder also makes a better stable ab- 
sorbent than either whole or cut stalks. 

Corn stover, like straw of the small grains, makes a valuable 
feed for young stock, idle horses, or cattle, that are being car- 
ried over the winter, in fair condition until spring time. The 
Massachusetts station found, as the result of four years' experi- 
ments,- 5 that moderately thin yearling steers lost only 33 pounds 
per head when wintered on whole cornstalks alone. This feed will, 
therefore, furnish nearly a maintenance ration for such animals. 
In trials at the Nebraska station two-year-old steers fed one-half 
alfalfa hay and one-half cornstalks did nearly as well as those fed 
clear alfalfa hay, similar amounts of corn being fed in both cases. 
In one experiment lasting 168 days the average gains made were 
even slightly greater than when alfalfa was fed as the sole rough- 
age. 26 Trials at the New Hampshire station -"' show that cut corn 
stover may be considered a good substitute for timothy for winter 
feeding of horses when fed with concentrates. Other experiments 
have shown the value of cornstalks for feeding cows and sheep. It 
is evident, therefore, that cornstalks are well worth utilizing for 
feeding purposes to a far greater extent than has heretofore been the 
case, especially on farms in the corn belt. A proper appreciation 
of the value of cornstalks and grain straw for feeding live stock 

25 Bulletin 71. M Bulletins !)0, 03, 100. - 7 Bulletin S2. 

9 



130 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

would be a powerful aid in the further development of our animal 
industry. 

The straws of legumes and miscellaneous grain crops, like 
buckwheat, millet, etc., do not differ greatly from the cereal straws, 
except that the legume straws are higher in protein and possess a 
somewhat higher digestibility. They are, however, rather coarse 
and unpalatable, and therefore less suited for the purpose of stock 
feeding than grain straw. Pea and bean straw, like legume straw 
in general, are much used as a feed for cows and sheep, especially in 
sections where these crops are largely grown. They are considered 
a valuable roughage, as they generally contain appreciable quanti- 
ties of seeds and pods. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the different kinds of straw of cereals used for feeding farm ani- 

mals, and the special value of each one. 

2. Name the different kinds of straw of leguminous crops used for feeding 

purposes, and state their approximate value in comparison with (a) 
cereal straw, (b) timothy hay, (c) corn fodder. 

3. To what purpose are cornstalks best put in feeding farm animals, and how 

best prepared for feeding ? 



CHAPTER XIV 
ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 

Root crops are grown for stock feeding to only a relatively 
limited extent in this country. There can be no question as to their 
value for this purpose; all agree that they are highly nutritious 
feeds and greatly relished by farm animals. The main objection 
to their use is the cost and the difficulty of growing them. It may 
be that this objection is, in general, well founded, and that there 
are crops equally valuable as stock feeds that can be grown with 
less labor and expense, e.g., corn in the central and eastern States, 
and alfalfa in the West, to mention only those two important forage 
crops. But roots have a special place to fill in the feeding of live- 
stock. They have a very beneficial effect on the health and the 
production of milch cows, ewes, and other farm animals and can 
often be produced in immense quantities, making it well worth 
while for stock farmers to look into their culture. 

The main reason why roots are not grown more extensively in the 
dairy sections of our country and elsewhere is that corn silage is 
now a common feed on dairy and stock farms. Silage compares 
favorably with roots as regards nutritive effect and can, as a rule, be 
produced at less expense and in larger yields of dry matter per acre. 

Relative Yields of Roots and Silage. — A number of experi- 
ment stations have furnished data for a comparison of the yields 
and the cost of production of roots and corn silage ; in these experi- 
ments roots of different kinds were raised for one or more years 
under similar conditions as those for Indian corn. The following 
table shows the average yields per acre of four kinds of root crops 
and of Indian corn obtained in experiments at the Maine, Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio, and Ontario (Guelph) experiment stations: 
Comparative Yields of Root Crops and Fodder Corn. 





Yield of root crops per acre 


Yields of fodder corn 
per acre 




Total 
weight, 
pounds 


Dry 

matter, 
pounds 


Green 

substance, 

pounds 


Dry 
matter, 
pounds 


Rutabagas 


37,240 
35,120 
37,310 
25,300 


4146 
3550 
3470 
4003 


34,200 
30,200 
34,169 
30,200 


5600 


M angels 


5920 


Turnips 


5608 


Sugar beets 


5900 






Averages 


33,740 


3792 


32,190 


5757 







131 



132 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

The figures in the table show that larger gross yields were 
obtained in the case of all roots, except sugar beets, than of corn; 
on the average for all four root crops, nearly 17 tons were harvested 
per acre, against 16 tons of fodder corn. The amounts of dry 
matter harvested in these crops were, however, 3792 pounds in 
roots and 5757 pounds in the corn, a difference of 52 per cent in 
favor of the latter crop. The roots have a somewhat higher digesti- 
bility than fodder corn. If we assume that the dry matter in 
the former crops is 87 per cent digestible, on the average, and 
that of the fodder corn 70 per cent digestible, we find that there is 
a difference of 22 per cent in the yield of digestible matter obtained 
per acre in favor of the fodder corn. It is fair to suppose that both 
kinds of crops were grown under as favorable conditions as the 
season would permit in these experiments, and we may, therefore, 
conclude that fodder corn will produce, on the average, about one- 
half more dry matter and over one-fifth more digestible matter per 
acre than root crops under conditions similar to those which pre- 
vailed in these experiments. 

While accurate information as regards the cost of raising roots 
and fodder corn is limited, it seems evident, from the accounts pub- 
lished by different stations, that it will cost at least twice as much 
to grow, harvest, and store a ton of roots as to grow and put a ton 
of Indian corn in the silo. When calculated on a basis of the cost 
of total dry substance or digestible matter in the two crops, the 
comparison, therefore, comes out still more unfavorably for root 
crops. Both in point of the actual yields secured and the expense 
of growing, roots are, in general, less desirable crops to raise than 
Indian corn wherever the conditions are favorable for the culture 
of the latter crop. 

In view of the facts stated, it is not surprising that root crops 
are grown to only a relatively small extent for feeding purposes in 
this country, and no system of farm management can be safely 
advocated that would give prominence to the growing of root crops 
by American farmers as a general proposition. There are, how- 
ever, conditions where it may be advisable to grow roots to a much 
larger extent than is now done, outside of the culture of sugar beets 
for the sake of sugar production; this is a different proposition 
from the growing of roots for stock feeding, and is not considered in 
the present discussion. The more important ones of these conditions 
are discussed in the following paragraphs. 

Value of Roots. — Eoot crops are especially valuable as appe- 
tizers, for exhibition animals, and for dairy cows that are being 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 133 

fed heavy rations with a view to securing a maximum production 
of milk. For these purposes no crops are equally valuable to 
farmers and breeders. Roots are also grown to advantage where 
Indian corn will not do well on account of climatic and other 
conditions. They grow best in a cool and moist climate. This 
may be inferred from the fact that they are important crops, in 
European countries, especially Great Britain, where the growing 
of turnips is a distinctive feature of farming and figures largely 
in the making of the fine quality of mutton and beef produced 
there. Also in Denmark, a highly specialized dairy country, the 
growing of roots, especially mangels and rutabagas, is largely 
practised, and their culture has increased in a marked manner 
during the present century, because the dairy farmers have found 
it advantageous on agricultural and economic grounds. 

Eoots are, in general, characterized by a high digestibility and 
palatability. They contain large proportions of water, as has been 
shown, viz., 70 to 90 per cent, and only small amounts of both fat 
and fiber. The protein is also low, and about 40 per cent thereof 
is in non-albuminoid form. The nitrogen-free extract, on the other 
hand, is relatively high and consists largely of soluble carbohydrates. 
The root crops are, therefore, especially valuable sources of carbo- 
hydrates. They are greatly relished by stock and have a favorable 
influence on their digestion and general health. The only exception 
is that care is necessary in case of feeding root crops (mangels and 
sugar beets) to breeding rams and perhaps also to ewes and cattle, 
on account of the possibility of formation of kidney and bladder 
stones. There is no danger in this respect in the case of fattening 
animals, according to the Iowa station. 1 

The main root crops used for feeding farm animals in this 
country are mangels, rutabagas, turnips, sugar beets, and carrots. 
Cabbage, rape, and kale belong to the same botanical genus as tur- 
nips and rutabagas (brassica), of the mustard family (Latin name, 
cruciferce), and parsnips belong to the carrot family (umbelliferce). 
These crops will now briefly be considered. 

Mangels are also called mangel-wurzels or field beets (Beta 
vulgaris, Fig. 22). Like root crops in general, mangels have a 
high feeding value for the amount of dry matter they contain, 
which is less than that of any other root crop, viz., 9 per cent on 
the average. There is considerable difference in different varieties 
in this respect, the average dry matter contents of these ranging 
between 6 and 16 per cent. The average digestion coefficients for 

1 Bulletin 112; Farmers' Bulletin 465. 



134 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



the dry matter of mangels is 87 per cent, and that of the carbo- 
hydrates 95 per cent. The carbohydrates are largely sugar and 
pectins, and make up nearly 70 per cent of the total dry matter. 
The protein substances (nitrogen X 6.25) consist of only 40 per 
cent of true protein (albuminoids), the balance being amides and 
nitric acids combined with alkalies. Very large yields of mangels 
are grown on rich land and with an ample water supply. Ontario 
Agricultural College reports a yield of nearly 28 tons to the acre, 
and Cornell station 23.6 tons, the average of five different stations 
coming at about 20 tons. 

Mangels grow considerably out of the ground and are easily 
pulled by hand. In the mild winter climate of the southern States 




Fig. 22. 



-Half-sugar mangels. The most desirable kind to grow for stock feeding, according 
to Cornell Station. 



and California they are generally left in the field until wanted for 
feeding, while in the eastern and central States they are stored in 
root cellars in the fall and kept cool and ventilated. They should 
not be fed for a few weeks after harvesting, as the freshly-harvested 
mangels tend to scour stock. Mangels furnish a good feed for all 
kinds of livestock, except perhaps horses. They are usually run 
through a root cutter or pulped before feeding. Danish feeding 
experiments have shown that the dry matter of mangels has a 
feeding value similar to grain feed, pound for pound, and that 
they may largely replace grain in feeding milch cows when sub- 
stituted in this ratio — say 1 part of grain for 10 to 15 parts of 
roots, according to the water content, or, on the average, 1 to 12^2 
by weight. Danish dairy farmers feed as much as 100 pounds of 
mangels per head daily to their cows, and similar heavy root feed- 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 135 

ing is also practised by eastern dairy farmers who are feeding their 
cows for official tests with a view to securing a maximum milk 
yield. Half-sugar mangels are recommended by the Cornell station 
as the most desirable root crop to grow for stock feeding. 2 

Rutabaga or Swedish turnip (Brassica campesUis, Fig. 23) 
gives yields similar to mangels and, as a rule, contains somewhat 
more dry matter. It is considered a good sheep feed and also makes 
an excellent winter feed for swine, especially for brood sows. 
Eutabagas are extensively grown by British and Canadian farmers, 
but less than mangels or sugar beets in this country. 




Fig. 23. — Rutabagas (Bloomsdale), a good type for stock feeding. (Cornell Station.) 

Kohlrabi (Brassica cauhrapa) has been developed for its 
thickened stem instead of for its leaves and root. Although not a 
root in the botanical sense, it may be discussed under this heading, 
as it serves the same purpose as roots^ in stock feeding. According 
to the Cornell station, 3 kohlrabi can be grown wherever rutabagas 
are grown, and will thrive under similar conditions. In the middle 
West, where rutabagas have a tendency to run to necks and form 
little root, this crop is a good substitute. The yields of the two 
crops appear to be about the same; as kohlrabi grows well out of 
the ground, it may be readily pastured by sheep, and these animals 
also relish greatly the leaves of the plant. 



2 Bulletin 317. 



3 Bulletin 244. 



136 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



Turnips (Brassica rapa) are low in dry matter, containing often 
a smaller percentage thereof than mangels (less than 10 per cent, 
on the average) ; the yields obtained are similar to those of mangels. 
They are especially valuable for sheep feeding, and are also some- 
times fed to cattle. When fed to milch cows they impart a strong 
turnip flavor to the milk, unless fed after milking; the same diffi- 
culty is likely to occur in the case of rutabagas and other crops of 
the mustard family (Cruciferce). Turnips do not keep as well as 
mangels or rutabagas, and must be fed out during the fall or 
early winter. 

Sugar beets (Beta vulgaris) are grown for the manufacture 
of beet sugar in the western States and in Michigan, Wisconsin, 




Fio. 24. — Carrots for stock feeding (Improved Rubicon and Danvers Half-long), fairly 
easy to harvest and capable of good yields. (Cornell Station.) 

and other central States, and are of minor importance for stock 
feeding. Their culture is more difficult and exacting than that 
of other root crops, and the yields obtained are smaller, viz., about 
12 tons, on an average; owing to their relatively high per cent of 
dry matter, 15 to 18 per cent (of which at least four-fifths is 
sucrose), they will, however, generally yield about as much dry 
matter per acre as other root crops. 

Sugar beets are greatly relished by stock and often fed, pulped 
or sliced, to milch cows, fattening cattle, sheep, and swine, espe- 
cially when these are being fitted for exhibitions. 

Carrots (Daucus carota, Fig. 24) are considered particularly 
valuable as a horse feed, but are also fed occasionally to cows. The 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 137 

red or yellow varieties impart a rich color to the milk, owing to the 
coloring matter (carotin) which they contain, and produce a yellow 
cream and butter, making the use of artificial coloring in butter- 
making quite unnecessary. Stock carrots will yield 10 to 20 tons 
per acre, according to the character of the soil, or still more under 
favorable conditions. They contain, on the average, about 12 per 
cent of dry matter, of which the greater portion is sugar (sucrose 
and glucose). They may be used to replace a portion of the oats 
in the ration of horses that are hard worked, feeding about six to 
eight pounds per head daily. 

Potatoes (Solatium tuberosum) are used extensively for stock 
feeding by European farmers, but only to a small extent in this 
country. The growing of this crop for the purpose of furnishing 
feed for farm animals cannot be recommended, on account of the 
relatively low yields obtained (average, 200 bushels at 60 pounds, 
or six tons) and the expense of production; but on most farms a 
supply of cull potatoes is available, and in potato-growing districts 
large amounts of such potatoes may be profitably used for feeding 
farm animals. 

Potatoes are primarily a fattening feed and are used especially 
for feeding swine. They may also be fed to advantage to other 
classes of stock, — horses, wethers, and milch cows, as a partial 
substitute for grain. They are generally cooked for swine, and are 
fed sliced, mixed with grain feed, to other classes of farm animals. 

Potatoes contain about 20 per cent of dry matter, of which over 
80 per cent is composed of carbohydrates, largely starch. Like all 
roots and tubers, they are low in fat ; the high starch content places 
them among our foremost starchy feeds and renders them especially 
valuable for fattening purposes. Danish feeding experiments have 
shown that four pounds of boiled potatoes are equal to a pound of 
mixed grain for feeding swine, and that for dairy cows it takes 
six pounds of raw potatoes to equal a pound of mixed grain (1 feed 
unit, p. 79). 

Unripe potatoes contain a poisonous nitrogenous compound 
called solanin, which also accumulates in considerable quantities in 
the sprouts; in feeding old sprouted potatoes the sprouts must, 
therefore, be carefully removed to prevent accidents. 

During recent years machinery for drying potatoes has been 
greatly perfected in Germany, and dried potatoes in the form of 
flakes or chips are now a regular article of commerce in Europe. 
It takes, on the average, about 3.8 tons of raw potatoes to make 
a ton of dried potato flakes. These are pronounced " much cheaper 



138 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

than oats, and, pound for pound, as valuable as a feed for horses." 
Experience from abroad suggests a fruitful line of experimentation 
for American feed manufacturers with this product, as there can be 
no question but that our potato industry can be readily further 
developed, and that it would be of great benefit to potato growers as 
well as to feeders to have cull or other potatoes made into a feed of 
unquestioned merit which can be kept indefinitely. 

Miscellaneous Succulent Feeds. — A number of miscellaneous 
succulent feeds of minor importance for stock feeding, like cabbage, 
rape, kale, pumpkins, etc., may be conveniently considered at this 
time. 

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) is a favorite feed among many 
sheep men, especially for fitting sheep for shows. It is also occa- 
sionally fed to milch cows and laying hens. On account of the 
relatively small yields obtained and the expense of growing cab- 
bages, it will not pay to use them for stock feeding, except in the 
case of unfavorable market conditions, or where the cost of the 
feed is not an important factor, as in the case of feeding for ex- 
hibition stock or preparing cows for official tests. As with other 
plants of the mustard family, cabbages are likely to taint the milk 
when fed to dairy cows and should, therefore, be fed after the 
milk has been removed from the stable. Cabbages contain, on the 
average, less than 10 per cent solids, 2.6 per cent digestible protein, 
and 6.1 per cent digestible carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive 
ratio being 1:2.7. A considerable proportion (30 per cent or 
more) of the protein is, however, present in amide form, in this 
as in other green plants, making it less valuable as a source of 
protein than is indicated by its narrow nutritive ratio. Trials con- 
ducted at the Cornell station showed that on the average for three 
years cabbages yielded 22.5 to 43.8 tons to the acre, containing 
1.8 to 3.1 tons of dry matter (average dry matter content, 6.3 to 7.1 
per cent). 4 

Rape (Brassica napus) is a valuable forage crop, especially 
adapted to a relatively cool and moist climate. It does well in 
northern United States and Canada, but can also be successfully 
grown further south and in the semi-arid sections of the country, 
either with or without irrigation. The parts of the plant eaten by 
stock are the numerous leaves and fleshy stems. Eape is used 
either for pasturage or as a soiling crop for sheep and swine, 
generally the former, while it is cut and fed green to cattle. It 
may be sown broadcast in the early spring and later at intervals of 

4 Bulletin 242. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 139 

two to three weeks. This will secure a succession of green feed 
for summer and fall feeding that will serve to make the farmer 
independent of short pastures and will keep the stock in a vigor- 
ous, thrifty condition (Fig. 25). Eape is also sown in drills, about 
30 inches apart, with the plants two to three inches apart in the 
row, either with spring grain or with corn just before the last 
cultivation. This will furnish an abundance of green forage for 
fall feeding. Eape may be cut or pastured from eight to ten weeks 
from the time of seeding, when it will be 12 to 15 inches high. 




Fig. 25 — Pigs on rape. 



This crop forms a very valuable succulent feed for pigs and sheep. 
(Wisconsin Station.) 



The variety of rape generally sown is Dwarf Essex, which is a 
biennial. Nearly all the seed of this variety on the market is im- 
ported. The seed of bird-seed rape, which is an annual, is some- 
times sold as Dwarf Essex, and care should, therefore, be taken to 
buy seed from reputable seedsmen only, as the former variety is 
worthless for forage purposes. 

Rape contains about 14 per cent dry matter and 2 per cent 
digestible protein, its nutritive ratio being about 1 : 4.3. Both on 
account of its relatively high water content and its narrow nutri- 
tive ratio, it will not give satisfactory results when fed alone, but 
should be supplemented with grain feed, preferably with low- 
protein feeds, such as corn and other cereals, wheal middlings, or 



140 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

dried beet pulp, or with grass pasture, mixed hay, cornstalks, etc. 
Rape has proved an excellent feed for sheep, swine, and cattle. At 
the Ottawa station a bunch of 22 steers made an average gain of 
50 pounds live weight in three weeks on an area of two acres ; about 
30 sheep had been allowed to pasture on a part of this field for ten 
weeks. The sheep also had access to a limited area of natural grass 
pasture. In an experiment with pigs, 60 pigs were fed on an 
acre and a half of rape ; in addition to the rape pasture, about 500 
pounds of grain were required for each pig from weaning time to an 
average of 185 pounds weight in October or November. 5 

The value of rape as a forage plant has also been established 
by experiments at the Wisconsin, Iowa, Michigan, and other stations. 
At the Wisconsin station a gain of 413.5 pounds of mutton was ob- 
tained from 9% tons of rape and 1439.8 pounds of grain (wheat 
and oats). The highest yield obtained from three cuttings at about 
four inches from the ground was at the rate of 30 tons of green 
forage per acre. An acre of rape was found to have a feeding value 
equivalent to 2657 pounds of grain fed to pigs four to ten months 
old. Young pigs did better when pastured on rape than on clover, 
grain being fed in both cases. Eape has an excellent effect on the 
milk secretion, and therefore makes a valuable soiling crop for 
dairy cows. As in the case of turnips, cabbages, and other plants with 
strong flavor, it should be fed after milking. Eape can be used to 
good advantage as a part of the ration for animals that are being 
fed in pens for market or for the show ring. It is also a valuable 
feed for young lambs and pigs at weaning time. Eape can stand 
quite cold weather, and will, therefore, last a long time after the 
pasture grasses succumb to frost ; by the use of this crop stock can be 
put into good condition for the holiday markets or for winter, and 
there need be no check in growth, fat, and milk production through 
insufficient succulent feed during the late summer and autumn 
months, as is too frequently the case. 6 

Kale (Brassica oleracea, var. Asephala) belongs to the mustard 
family and stands quite close to the cabbage in composition and 
feeding value. It is only grown to a small extent for forage purposes 
in. this country, the only States where its use appears to have spread 
being Oregon and western Washington. On rich land, well sup- 
plied with moisture, it gives an immense amount of nutritious 

5 Ottawa Bulletin 42. 

"Farmers' Bulletin 1G4; Division Agrostology, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Circular 12; Wisconsin Report 20, pp. 40-55 and 281-283. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 141 

green feed for fall and early winter feeding, viz., 30 to 40 tons or 
more per acre. Under ordinary conditions 20 tons are probably an 
average yield. All kinds of stock, including poultry, like kale, and 
it is specially valuable as a feed for milch cows, sheep, and swine. 
According to the Oregon station, 35 pounds of kale a day, with 20 
pounds of hay, make an excellent ration for dairy cows, very little 
grain feed being needed in addition. 7 

Pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo). — The use of pumpkins in feed- 
ing stock is old in this country, being planted in the corn and left 
in the field till " the frost is on the punkin and the fodder's in the 
shock ! " The crop has never assumed much importance as a stock 
feed, however, and is fed, especially to milch cows and swine, more 
as an appetizer than for the amount of nutrients that it supplies. 
It contains about 10 per cent of dry matter, and resembles turnips 
quite closely in composition. The Vermont station 8 found that 
two and one-half tons of pumpkins are equal to one ton of corn 
silage for dairy cows. They are generally cooked for swine and 
mixed with grain feeds, but it is a question whether the cooking 
adds anything to their value (p. 67). The seeds are often removed 
in feeding pumpkins; some farmers believe that they tend to dry 
up cows. There is probably no foundation in fact for this belief. 
According to Grisdale, pigs like the seeds best, and no injury comes 
from feeding them. Henry states 9 that the seeds contain much 
nutriment and should not be wasted. 

Pie melons (also called citron or cow melons) are grown for 
feeding purposes to a limited extent in western States. " Like the 
ordinary field pumpkin, they can be produced readily in large 
quantities on most lands, and ripen at a time when green feed is 
likely to be scarce. When fed to dairy stock they produce an in- 
creased milk yield, which is more than commensurate with their 
actual content of feed substance. This is because of their palata- 
bility and beneficial effects upon digestion and the addition of 
wholesome variety to the ration. They may be fed with profit to 
swine and poultry when in confinement, and to sheep, especially 
during nursing periods. 10 Pie melons contain 5.5 per cent dry 
matter on the average, or only about one-half as much as field 
pumpkins. The relative feeding value of the two crops is, in all 
probability, represented by this ratio. 

7 Circular Bulletin 5. ° " Feeds and Feeding," 10th ed., p. 195. 
'Report, 1908. 10 California Bulletin 132. 



142 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



Jerusalem artichokes (Ilelianthus tuberosus). — This hardy 
perennial is grown for the sake of its tubers, which resemble potatoes 
in composition and are used as a human food, and also as a feed for 
hogs and horses. The large leaves and stems, which may be cut 
off about two feet from the ground when the plants are five 
or six feet high, make an excellent green feed for sheep, goats, 
young cattle, and even milch cows, according to European authori- 
ties. If cut at this time, the yield of tubers does not appear to be 
appreciably affected. 11 The Massachusetts station 12 reports a yield 
of 8.2 tons of artichoke tubers per acre. The tubers may be har- 
vested in the same way as potatoes, or may be rooted up by hogs 
turned into the field. As artichokes can withstand severe periods of 
drought, they may be worthy of a trial by farmers in the north- 
western States, but a word of caution is in order in regard to this 
as well as other relatively unknown crops ; their importance is often 
greatly exaggerated in the agricultural press. 

Parsnips (Pastinaca sativa) are grown for the sake of their 
thickened stems and roots, which are used both as a human food 
and for stock feeding. They are grown on the islands of Jersey 
and Guernsey as a dairy feed, but only to a very limited extent 
in this country. The yield obtained is small, and it is, moreover, 
difficult to harvest the crop, as the roots grow entirely in the ground. 
Its use for stock feeding is, therefore, not likely to be extended 
much beyond its present confines. The following table shows the 
chemical composition of leaves, stems, and tubers of artichokes, of 
parsnips, and of potatoes, for the sake of comparison : 

Composition of Artichokes and Parsnips Compared tvith Potatoes, in Per Cent 



Artichokes, green leaves 

and stems 

Artichokes, tubers 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 



Dry 

matter 



31.0 
20.5 
11.7 

20.9 



Protein 



3.2 
2.6 
1.6 

2.1 



Fat 



Fiber 



6.0 

.8 

1.0 

.4 



Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 



18.0 
15.9 
10.2 

17.4 



3.1 
1.0 

.7 

.9 



Chufa (Cyperus esculentus) is a southern perennial sedge that pro- 
duces an abundance of small, underground tubers. The crop is generally har- 
vested by hogs that are turned into the field as the tubers ripen in October or 
November. Chufas are a noxious weed on low, damp places on southern 
farms. They grow best on light, sandy soils, where they give an average 

11 Pott, " Landw. Futtermittel," part i, p. 196. 

12 Report 10. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 143 

yield of 100 bushels to the acre. The Alabama station 13 showed as the average 
of two trials that chufa will produce pork at the rate of 307 pounds per acre, 
after allowance was made for the grain feed eaten, while in trials at the 
Arkansas station an acre of chufa produced 592 pounds, against 1252 
pounds from an acre of peanuts and 430 pounds from an acre of corn. 14 

The sweet potato (Ipomcea batatas) is another southern crop that 
grows as far north as Illinois, Kansas, and New Jersey. Its greatest im- 
portance is as a human food, but, in the absence of good near-by markets and 
proper transportation facilities, it becomes of considerable value as a feed for 
stock, especially swine, in regions adapted to its culture. Fed sliced, they 
make a good cattle and horse feed. Pigs do their own harvesting. Three 
pounds of sweet potatoes contain nearly as much dry matter, quite as much 
carbohydrates, and less than one-half as much protein as are generally con- 
tained in one pound of Indian corn. 15 By using one-half pound cotton-seed 
meal, or one pound cowpeas for every ten pounds of sweet potatoes, the de- 
ficiency in protein will be fully covered. The Florida station lu found that 
sweet potatoes can replace one-half of the corn in rations for work horses, 
the feeds being substituted in the ratio of three to one. Trials with dairy 
cows at the same station indicate that 100 pounds of sweet potatoes have a 
nutritive effect similar to 150 pounds of corn silage. Sweet potatoes con- 
tain, on the average, 31.7 per cent water, 1.1 per cent ash, 1.9 per cent pro- 
tein, 26.8 per cent carbohydrates, and 0.7 per cent fat. Their high sugar 
and starch contents (4 to 6 per cent and 1G to 18 per cent, respectively) 
render them especially valuable as a feed for fattening swine. 

Sweet potato vines are also utilized as a feed for cattle. They may be 
considered similar to cowpea vines in feeding value, and are better suited for 
feeding green than for curing into hay or for silage. 

Sweet Cassava {Manihot aipi) . — This is a sub-tropical plant belong- 
ing to the milk-weed family, which is cultivated for its starchy roots. These 
are used for the manufacture of starch and for stock feeding. Ninety-five 
per cent of the cassava grown in this country is fed to livestock; all classes 
of farm animals eat it with a relish and thrive on it better than when con- 
fined to only dry feeding. 17 Cassava is grown in the Gulf States in this 
country, and cannot be grown outside of an area extending 100 miles from 
the coast of the Gulf States, and possibly South Carolina. Five to six tons 
of roots per acre are a fair crop. The following analysis shows the com- 
position of cassava roots : 

66.0 per cent moisture, 0.7 per cent ash; 1.1 per cent protein, 1.8 
per cent fiber, 30.2 per cent nitrogen-free extract, 0.2 per cent fat; 
nutritive ratio, 1 : 28.5. 

On account of its wide nutritive ratio cassava is best supplemented with 
high-protein feeds common in the South, like cowpeas, velvet beans, cotton- 
seed meal, etc., in feeding growing animals, milch cows, or animals that are 
being fattened. It furnishes an excellent substitute for winter pasture as 
well as for the silo where a farmer does not have a sufficient number of ani- 
mals to make the investment in a silo profitable. 

Apples and other fruits are at times available for stock feeding 
in orchard regions during the summer and fall and may be fed with 
advantage to cattle, sheep, swine, or horses, all of which eat them 

"Bulletin 122. "Bulletin 72. 

"Bulletin 54; see also Farmers' Bulletin 102. 17 Farmers' Bulletin 167. 
15 Farmers' Bulletin 26. 



144 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



with great relish. As much as 40 to 50 pounds of apples may be fed 
daily per head to milch cows with good results. In experiments at 
the Vermont station 18 apples were found to have about 40 per cent 
of the feeding value of corn silage when fed to dairy cows. They 
make an excellent swine feed, if fed either steamed or sliced with 
the grain feed, but should always be fed while fresh, before fer- 
mentations set in. According to the results of trials at the Utah 
station, 19 apples have a similar feeding value for swine as grass 
pasture when fed with skim milk and shorts. The preceding re- 
marks as to the value of apples for stock feeding hold good also for 
other fruits — windfalls and culls of pears, prunes, figs, oranges, etc. 
They are especially adapted for fattening swine, and are quite 
generally so used in fruit-growing districts. 

The chemical composition of the more important fruits as given 
by the California station 20 are shown below: 

Composition of Fruits, Edible Portion, in Per Cent 



Water 



Ash 



Protein 



Fiber 



Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 



Fat 



Apples 

Oranges 

Pears 

Apricots 

Figs 

Grapes 

Plums 

Watermelons 



84.8 
88.3 
83.9 
85.1 
79.1 
80.1 
78.4 
90.3 



.4 
.8 
.6 
1.0 
1.5 
1.3 
1.0 
1.1 



1.5 

10.5 

2.7 

13.4* 

18.8* 

20.2 * 
7.9* 



12.5 
10.5 
11.5 
13.4* 

18.S* 

20.2* 

7.9* 



.3 



* Chiefly sugar. 



The main portion of the nitrogen-free extract of the fruits con- 
sists of different sugars (fructose, dextrose, and some sucrose). 
Organic acids (chiefly malic acid), pectin and dextrin, starch and 
pentosans, etc., are also present. The nutritive ratio of apples is 
about 1:44.2; that of apple pomace (the residue obtained in the 
manufacture of apple cider), 1:24.7; pears, 1:33.7; oranges, 
1 : 10.9 ; figs, 1 : 16 ; watermelons, 1 : 9.7, etc. 

According to Jaffa and Anderson, 100 pounds of apples have a 
feeding value equivalent to 20 pounds of alfalfa hay, 15 pounds of 
corn or barley, or 18 pounds of wheat bran. 21 

18 Report 1001. 10 Bulletin 101. 20 Bulletin 132. 

21 A table showing the comparative values of fresh and dried fruits and 
hay, grains, etc., is published in California Bulletin 132, p. 52; see also 
Woll, " Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen," p. 19. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 145 



Range and Desert Plants. — The common plants growing in 
the deserts and mountain ranges of western United States are sage 
brush, greasewood and species of salt bush (Atriplex). These plants 
are able to grow in the regions mentioned because of their ability to 
withstand extreme drought and a considerable amount of alkali in 
the soil which would kill other vegetation. Sheep and other stock 
are, however, able to browse on these plants and derive considerable 
nourishment from them. Their value for stock feeding is not defi- 
nitely known, as but few chemical analyses or digestion trials have 
been made with them, and there are no comparative feeding trials 
on record with these plants. The Arizona Experiment Station has 
published analyses of salt bushes and greasewood 22 which show 
that they contain high percentages of crude protein, fiber, and ash, 
with medium amounts of nitrogen-free extract and fat. The fol- 
lowing average results were obtained in the analyses of different 
range forage crops : 



Compos 


ition of Air-dry Range Forage Plants, in Per Cent 






Water 


Ash 


Crude 
protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Fat 


No. of 

samples 




6.10 
6.30 
4.55 
7.60 
7.17 


17.20 
17.90 
14.41 
11.76 
9.87 


12.89 

14.13 

19.81 

8.88 

4.03 


24.53 
20.75 
24.50 
33.62 
30.90 


37.44 
38.81 
34.28 
36.53 
46.51 


1.78 
2.11 
2.45 
1.61 
1.52 


4 


Australian salt bush 


1 
1 
1 
2 



As in the case of all plants growing in arid regions, the per- 
centage of ash in these forage plants is very high, but the fiber con- 
tent is no higher than in average grades of hay, except in the case 
of the water grass. According to the results of the chemical analyses 
made, greasewood contains more protein and no more fiber than 
alfalfa hay of good quality, but, in the absence of digestion experi- 
ments and carefully-conducted feeding trials, definite judgment can- 
not be pronounced as to its nutritive value. The Colorado station 
found the native and Australian salt bushes to have the following 
digestion coefficients, according to the results obtained in trials with 
sheep : 23 

Digestion Coefficients for Salt Bushes, in Per Cent 





Dry 

matter 


Protein 


Fat 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 

free 
extract 


Fat 


Native salt bushes 

Australian salt bushes. . . 


46 

60 


66 

85 


52 
24 


8 
27 


49 
64 


72 

60 



22 Report, 1903, p. 349. 
28 Bulletins 33 and 135. 
10 



146 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



According to Jaffa, 24 sheep and cattle have subsisted altogether 
on salt bushes through an entire season, and sheep feeders and cattle 
men report favorably as to their nutritive value when eaten in con- 
nection with hay and grain feeds. 

Spineless cacti (species of Opuntia, Fig. 26) and prickly pears 
are desert plants used as a forage for cattle in cases of emer- 
gencies, and occasionally in a limited way as a regular forage crop. 
There are many varieties of cacti used for this purpose, some with, 
some without spines. The former are generally singed with a spe- 
cial gasolene torch before being fed to farm animals, while the 
latter are fed directly, either whole or after being run through a 




Fig. 26. — Spineless cactus yields large' crops of a very watery feed under favorable con- 
ditions; it is greatly relished by cattle and hogs. 



cutter. There is no material difference in the chemical composition 
of the two kinds of cacti. In the case of either kind the composition 
of the plants will vary according to the parts analyzed. The older, 
somewhat woody stems contain less water than the young, succulent 
joints. Cattle appear to prefer the more mature joints, and doubt- 
less derive the greater amount of nutriment from these. Spineless 
cacti will contain 75 to 92 per cent of water (average about 85 per 
cent), about 0.9 per cent protein, 2.6 per cent fiber, 14.7 per cent 
nitrogen-free extract, 0.4 per cent fat, and 4.2 per cent ash. As 
might be expected, the ash content and the nitrogen-free extract 
are very high, while protein is relatively low; it is, therefore, a 
starchy feed and has a very wide nutritive ratio. 

24 California Bulletin 132. 



ROOTS, TUBERS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT FEEDS 147 

The spineless cacti have been considerably exploited in the south- 
western States and California during recent years as a feed for 
farm animals, and extravagant claims are often made as regards 
the yields obtained and the nutritive value of the plants. The 
yields have been calculated on the basis of the weight of slabs from 
a single young plant, or perhaps a small field during a single sea- 
son, and enormous figures, as high as 1000 tons per acre, have been 
claimed as a result: As against these figures we have accurate 
information as to the yields secured at the Arizona station and at 
Chico, Cal., where the United States Department of Agriculture 
has conducted experiments with this plant for a number of years 
past. The results obtained at the latter place show an average 
annual yield between 20 and 25 tons to the acre. This is with 
expert cultivation and maintenance of a perfect stand. " The 
plantation has been carefully cultivated, all weeds have been kept 
down during the growing season, and a good tilth has been main- 
tained during the summer. Once or twice a year the whole planta- 
tion has been gone over, and missing plants replaced." 

Cactus is well liked by most farm animals, and is especially 
adapted for feeding cattle and swine. Instances are on record of 
dairy cows eating 100 to 150 pounds of cacti a day per head, for 
months at a time, receiving no dry feed in addition, but on account 
of the laxative effect of the plant, and on general principles, the 
better practice is to feed either dry roughage or grain feed, or 
both, in connection with it, whether the animals fed be fattening 
steers, milch cows, or swine. According to Griffiths, 6 pounds of 
green prickly pears, when singed, have a feeding value similar to 
a pound of dry sorghum hay when fed to dairy cattle. 25 A carload 
of range steers fed 96 pounds of singed prickly pears and 4.3 
pounds of cotton-seed meal per head daily for a period of 104 days 
gained 1.75 pounds daily per head on this feed; it required, there- 
fore, 55 pounds of pears and 2.5 pounds of cotton-seed meal per 
pound of gain, at a cost of about 3!/2 cents per day for feed. 

References. — The following Department of Agriculture or experiment 
station publications have been issued during late years on the subject of 
prickly pears and spineless cacti : " Singed Cacti as a Forage," Arizona 
Bulletin 51 (Timely Hints No. 52), May, 1904. "The Prickly Pear and 
Other Cacti as Feeds for Stock," Griffiths, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, 
Bulletin 74, 1905. " Feeding Prickly Pears to Stock in Texas," Griffiths, 
U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 91, 1900. " Prickly Pear and 
Other Cacti as Food for Stock," Griffiths and Hare, New Mexico station, 
Bulletin GO, 190G. " The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop," Griffiths, Bureau of 

25 Bureau Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 91. 



148 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Plant Industry, Bulletin 124, 1908. " Experiments on the Digestibility of 
Prickly Pear by Cattle,'' Hare, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 
106, 1908. "' Spineless Prickly Pears," Grilliths, Bureau of Plant Industry, 
Bulletin 140, li)09. " Native Cacti as Emergency Forage Plants," Thornber 
and Vinson, Arizona Bulletin 07, 1911. "The Tbornless Prickly Pears," 
Griffiths, U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 483, 1913. "Behavior under' Cultural 
Conditions of Species of Cacti Known as Opuntia," Griffiths, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture Bulletin 31, 1913. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What root crops are commonly used for stock feeding in this country? 

2. Give the characteristic points in favor of the six most important root 

crops. 

3. What is the relative value of roots and silage to the stock farmer? 

4. Name the farm animals to which potatoes may be fed, and method of 

feeding these. 

5. Describe briefly the value for feeding farm stock the following crops: 

Cabbage, rape, pumpkins, and sweet potatoes. 

6. What is the general value of fruits for feeding farm stock? 

7. Name some of the main range and desert plants and discuss briefly their 

value for stock feeding. 



CHAPTER XV 
SILOS AND SILAGE 

A silo is an air-tight structure used for the preservation of 
forage crops in a succulent condition (Fig. 27). The green forage 
placed in the silo undergoes certain changes, through fermentation 
processes and respiration of the plant cells. The resulting feed is 
known as silage (formerly ensilage). 

While the history of the silo dates back to antiquity, it is only 
during relatively recent years that special silo structures have been 



" 


- 


f 1 



Fig. 27. — Stave silos. Dimensions, 12 feet in diameter, 36 feet high, capacity S4 tons. 

built in this country. The introduction of the silo on American 
farms may be said to date from the latter part of the eighties. The 
silo was first introduced into the dairy sections of the eastern and 
central States, the silage being made from Indian corn and used 
largely for feeding dairy cows. Gradually, however, the silo has 
spread to all kinds of stock farms, especially in the corn belt, and 
it is now a part of the permanent equipment on nearly all such farms 
where modern methods of management prevail. 

Silo Types. — The various steps in the evolution of silo buildings 
are as follows: First, a pit or trench dug in the ground ; second, 
a square or rectangular, relatively shallow stone or wooden structure; 

149 



150 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



third, modern round silos. Silos of the first kind are still met with 
in beet-growing districts, where the wet pulp from the beet-sugar 
factories is cured or siloed in trenches near the factories, or in 
shallow silos built up with board walls. Silos of the second type 
are no more built or used, so far as is known. 

The first silo of the third type was built at Wisconsin Experi- 
ment Station, in 1891, by the late Professor F. H. King, who 
strongly urged the building of these silos in preference to other 
silo types. This original round silo had a diameter of 16 feet and 
was 27 feet high (capacity, about 90 tons of green corn). Since 
the construction of this silo the tall, round silo has become well- 
nigh universal in this country. While the materials used and the 
dimensions have varied considerably, the principle of construction 
of practically all silos built since the early part of the century has 
been that first worked out and described by Professor King. 1 Mod- 
ern silos are built a great deal taller than was previously the case, 
the silos built during the last decade or two being 30 to 40 feet high 
or more, with a diameter varying from 12 to 24 feet, according to 
the capacity wanted. It is not recommended to build silos of larger 
diameter than 20 feet, as it is difficult to feed out the silage from 
such silos rapidly enough to prevent considerable loss through 
decay of the surface layer, except in cases of very large herds. The 
following table shows the relation between the size and capacity 
of different silos of a diameter from 10 to 26 feet and a height of 
20 to 40 feet: 

Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos for Well-matured Corn Silage, 
in Tons (King) 



Depth 
of silo. 


Inside diameter of silo, feet 


feet 


1G 


12 


14 


15 


16 


18 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


20 


26 


38 


51 


59 


67 


85 


105 


115 


127 


138 


151 


163 


177 


21 


28 


40 


55 


63 


72 


91 


112 


123 


135 


148 


161 


175 


189 


22 


30 


43 


59 


67 


77 


97 


120 


132 


145 


158 


172 


187 


202 


23 


32 


46 


62 


72 


82 


103 


128 


141 


154 


169 


184 


199 


216 


24 


34 


49 


66 


76 


87 


110 


135 


149 


164 


179 


195 


212 


229 


25 


36 


52 


70 


81 


90 


116 


143 


158 


173 


190 


206 


224 


242 


26 


38 


55 


74 


85 


97 


123 


152 


168 


184 


201 


219 


237 


257 


27 


40 


58 


78 


90 


103 


130 


160 


177 


194 


212 


231 


251 


271 


28 


42 


61 


83 


95 


108 


137 


169 


186 


204 


223 


243 


264 


285 


29 


45 


64 


88 


100 


114 


144 


178 


196 


215 


235 


265 


278 


300 


30 


47 


68 


93 


105 


119 


151 


187 


206 


226 


247 


269 


292 


315 


31 


49 


70 


96 


110 


125 


158 


195 


215 


236 


258 


282 


305 


330 


32 


51 


73 


101 


115 


131 


166 


205 


226 


248 


271 


295 


320 


346 


36 


64 


105 


130 


139 


155 


190 


235 














40 


75 


121 


150 


165 


180 


228 


279 















Wisconsin Bulletin 28; Report 10, p. 201. 



SILOS AND SILAGE 151 

The figures for the capacity of silos given in the table refer to 
Indian corn cut when nearly mature. Somewhat larger quantities 
can be put in of immature corn or sorghum, and less of dry corn, 
alfalfa, grain sorghums, and similar crops that do not pack well. 
If cut when nearly ripe, the grain sorghums will occupy at least 
one-third more space than Indian corn cut at the usual time, and the 
capacity of a silo for these crops would then be decreased in this 
ratio from the figures given in the table. 

Important Points in Building Silos. — The following points 
should be kept in mind in building silos : 

1. The silo must be air-tight. The process of silage making is 
largely a series of fermentation processes. Bacteria pass into the 
silo with the green fodder and after a short time begin to multiply 
there, favored by the presence of air and an abundance of feed 
materials in the fodder, especially soluble carbohydrates. As a 
result of this action, as well as of the respiration of the plant cells, 
carbon-dioxide and heat are evolved. The more air at the disposal 
of the bacteria, the further the fermentations will progress, and the 
greater will be the losses of feed materials. If a supply of air is 
admitted to the silo from the outside, the bacteria will have a 
chance to continue to grow, and more fodder will, therefore, be 
wasted. If no further supply of air is at hand, except what remains 
in the air spaces between the siloed fodder, the bacteria will gradu- 
ally die out, or only such forms will survive as are able to grow in 
the absence of air. The changes occurring in siloed fodder are also 
due in part to intramolecular respiration in the plant tissues, which 
continues until the cells are killed. When there is available oxygen 
in contact with the plant cells, these will live longer and the loss of 
plant materials will be greater than when only a smaller supply of 
air (oxygen) remains in the air spaces in the siloed mass. 

2. The silo must be deep. Depth in the silo is essential in mak- 
ing silage so as to have the siloed mass under great pressure; this 
will cause it to pack well and will leave as little air as possible in 
the interstices between the cut fodder, thus reducing the loss of feed 
materials to a minimum. 

The early silos built in this country or abroad were shallow 
structures, often not over 12 to 15 feet deep, and no longer than they 
were deep. Experience showed that it was necessary to weight heavily 
the fodder placed in these silos in order to avoid a large amount of 
moldy silage. In modern silos no weighting is necessary, since the 
material placed in the silo, on account of the great depth, is suffi- 



152 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



ciently heavy to largely exclude the air in the siloed fodder and 
thus secure a good quality of silage. In case of deep silos the loss 
from spoiled silage on the top is smaller in proportion to the amount 
of silage stored, and a smaller loss occurs while the silage is being 
fed out. As the silage packs better in a deep silo than in a shallow 

one, the former kind of silos 



will hold more silage per cubic 
foot than the latter (Fig. 28). 
3. The silo m u st h a v e 
smooth, perpendicular trails, 
which will allow the fodder to 
settle without forming cavities 
along the walls. In a deep silo 
the fodder will settle several 
feet during the first few days 
after filling. Any unevenness 
in the wall will prevent the 
mass from settling uniformly, 
and air spaces thus formed will 
cause the surrounding silage 
to spoil. 

The walls of the silo must 
be made rigid and very strong, 
so as not to spring when the 
siloed mass settles. The lateral 
(outward) pressure of cut corn 
when settling at the time of 
filling is considerable, and in- 
creases with the depth of the 
silage, at the rate of about 
eleven pounds per square foot 
for every foot in depth of sil- 
age. At a depth of 20 feet 
there is, therefore, an outward 
pressure of 220 pounds per square foot ; at 30 feet, a pressure of 330 
pounds. It is because of this great pressure that it was difficult to 
make large, rectangular silos deep enough to be economical, since 
the walls of rectangular silos always spring more or less under the 
pressure of the silage, and this seldom kept as well in them as it 
does in those whose walls cannot spring. In the round wooden silos 
every board acts as a hoop. and. as the wood does not stretch much 
lengthwise, there is but little danger of spreading of such walls; it 




Fig. 28. — A good concrete silo costs more 
than a wooden silo, but will last indefinitely 
when properly cared for, and needs no atten- 
tion beyond an application of a coat of pure 
cement wash every two or three years. (Wis- 
consin Station.) 



SILOS AND SILAGE 



153 



is on account of this fact and because of the economy of construc- 
tion that only round silos are now built. 

After the silage has once settled there is no lateral pressure in 
the silo ; cases are on record where a filled silo has burned down to 
the ground with the silage remaining practically intact as a tall 
stack. 

Silo Structures. — It does not lie within the scope of this book 
to discuss different methods of silo construction; suffice it to say 
that there are four or five different kinds of materials now used in 
the building of silos: Wooden silos (either stave, so-called re-saw, 
plastered), cement (solid or block), brick, stone, glazed tile, and 
steel. A satisfactory and more or less permanent silo can be built 
of any one of these materials, provided due care is taken in the 
construction. The cost of different kinds of silos will vary greatly 




Fig. 29. — A California dairy barn, with concrete silos, accommodating four rows of cows, 
with a driveway in the middle. 

in different sections, according to the relative prices of lumber, 
cement, brick, etc. A number of different experiment stations have 
published bulletins on silo construction which describe the silo 
materials best adapted to the conditions in the respective States, 
and these may profitably be consulted before a silo is built. Silos 
built by farmers living in the same localities may also be examined, 
and advantage thus taken of the experience of others (Fig. 29). 

Advantages of Silos. — There are several reasons for the rapid 
increase of silos on American farms during the past few decades ; 
the most important ones are given below. 

1. Generally speaking, the silo enables the farmer to secure 
the largest possible amounts of feed materials in the corn crop for 
feeding farm animals in the most convenient and cheapest manner. 

2. Corn silage furnishes a uniform succulent feed during the 
winter and spring, which is greatly relished by all classes of farm 



154 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



animals and especially adapted for feeding dairy cows and beef 
cattle. 

3. The silo will preserve feeds like corn, sorghum, clover, alfalfa, 
pea vines, etc., in a succulent condition for feeding any time during 
the year, and thus furnishes valuable supplementary feeds for late 
summer and early fall feeding when pastures are likely to be short. 

4. The silo makes the farmer less dependent on weather condi- 
tions than when hay is made, and enables him to get along with 
smaller barns than otherwise, since less room is required for storing 
feed in a silo than in the form of hay in a barn. 2 




30. — A "re-saw" silo being filled with alfalfa. These silos are well adapted to mild 
climates, as that of California and the southern States. {.Pacific Rural Press.) 



The value of the silo on American stock farms, and especially 
to dairy farmers and cattle men, has been fully established during 
the past few decades by numerous carefully-conducted feeding 
experiments with different classes of farm animals, as well as by 
practical feeding experience. The present general distribution of 
the silo in this country has been the most important factor in the 

2 The advantages of silos are discussed more fully in the author's " Book 
on Silage" (Chicago, 1900; now out of print) and in "Modern Silage 
Methods," published by Silver Manufacturing Company, Salem, Ohio, both 
of which books have been freely used in the preparation of this chapter. 



SILOS AND SILAGE 



155 



development of our livestock industry that has come since the 
introduction of modern agricultural machinery (Figs. 30 and 31). 
The silo is most economical where the number of stock kept is 
sufficiently large to consume at least 100 tons of silage during the 
season. The investment in a silo and necessary machinery is rela- 
tively high for smaller silos, and the cost of storing and loss of silage 
through spoiling relatively larger than with large silos. The silo 
belongs with intensive farming, where the greatest profit results 
from keeping as large a number of livestock as possible on a given 
acreage. 3 Tor small herds of, say, 12 head of cattle or less, the 
growing of roots where the land is suited to these crops may prove 
a more economical crop than silage for supplying succulence in the 
rations fed. 




Fig. 31. — Battery of four cement silos on a California cattle ranch. Dimensions 20 feet in 
diameter, and 46 feet high, capacity about 350 tons each. (Pacific Rural Press) 



SILAGE CROPS. — Indian corn is preeminently the great 
American silage crop and is, in general, better adapted for siloing 
purposes than any other agricultural crop. The reason for this is 
easily seen : The thick stems and broad leaves of the corn plant, 
when cut, pack well in the silo; corn is rich in starch and other 
non-saccharine carbohydrates, which insures silage of a moderate 
acidity, and it is relatively low in protein substances, so that the 
danger of undesirable fermentations in the silo is removed. The 
acids normally present^n corn silage are lactic and acetic. Lactic 



p. 37. 



Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 73, 



156 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

acid is non-volatile and makes up about two-thirds of the acidity of 
silage made from nearly matured corn, or about 1 per cent on the 
average, while acetic acid is present in from 0.2 to 0.5 per cent on 
the average. This and related acids give to well-preserved silage 
its pleasantly acidulated, aromatic odor, and make corn silage 
particularly palatable to farm animals. 

Corn is planted thicker when grown for silage than for grain 
(p. 106). The closeness of planting varies in different regions, 
according to soil and climate. The common practice is to plant 
the corn in hills, three and a half feet apart both ways, for grain, 
and in drills, three and a half feet apart, with stalks eight to ten 
inches apart in the row for silage. This will secure a fair propor- 
tion of ears and a maximum yield of dry matter in the crop taken 
off the land (p. 105). Experiments conducted with regard to the 
effect of methods of planting corn have shown that the yields ob- 
tained are not influenced materially by the distribution of the seed 
so long as the amount of seed per acre remains the same. 4 The 
question of planting corn in hills or drills may, therefore, be decided 
on the score of convenience of cultivating the field and handling 
the crop. 

Corn for the Silo. — Experience and direct trials have proved 
that it is best to plant a variety of corn for silage that will mature 
in the locality given, and to grow a maximum amount of dry matter 
to the acre, which will mean that the yield of perfect ears will be 
smaller than when grown for grain. As the quality of the silage 
made from well-matured corn is better than that made from rather 
immature grain, the best practice is to allow the grain to nearly 
ripen before it is cut for the silo. This is advantageous also because 
of the rapid increase in the yield of dry matter per acre during the 
last stages of the growing period when the kernels begin to harden 
(p. 55). If the grain is fully matured by the time the silo can be 
filled, a quantity of water added to the mass in the silo or in the 
blower as the corn goes into the silo will secure a good quality of 
silage. Frosted corn can likewise be made into good silage by a 
liberal application of water in the same way. 

The amount of silage that can be obtained from an acre of 
corn will vary with the fertility of the land, the season, and the care 
used in growing the crop, from 6 tons or below to over 20 tons in 
exceptional cases. A 50-bushel crop will yield about 8 to 12 tons 
of silage per acre, depending upon the amounts of foliage and 
stalks that accompany the ear. Southern varieties of corn, as a 

4 Illinois Bulletin 31, Connecticut Report, 1890. 



SILOS AND SILAGE 157 

rule, carry a larger proportion of the plant in the form of stalks 
and leaves than do northern-grown varieties. 5 

The general practice adopted by farmers in the corn belt is to 
silo the corn, " ears and all." The entire crop is run through a 
cutter and filled into the silo, where it is evenly mixed and tramped 
down carefully, especially along the walls of the silo. Experiments 
conducted by the author at the Wisconsin station 6 and by Hills at 
Vermont station 7 showed conclusively that this method of handling 
the crop is more economical and convenient than to husk, shell, 
and grind the corn separately and feed it to dairy cows, with silage 
made from corn fodder or stover. According to the results obtained 
in the Vermont trials, one acre of corn silage made from the whole 
corn plant, including ears, is equal in feeding value to one and one- 
quarter acres of silage made from corn stover fed with the corre- 
sponding amount of ground grain. 

The fact that corn silage is relatively low in protein has led to 
the suggestion that leguminous crops be placed in the silo with the 
corn. The most successful crops for this purpose are cowpeas or 
soybeans grown in the corn, both being cut for the silo at the same 
time. Cowpeas mature at about the same time as corn in the 
South, and furnish large yields of feed; they make a valuable 
mixed silage for southern stock farms. Soybeans may be success- 
fully used for the same purpose and can be grown farther north ; 
grown together with Indian corn, they make a good quality of 
silage that is considerably richer in protein than corn silage alone 
(p. 340). 

Sorghum has been highly recommended as a silage crop by the 
Kansas and Tennessee experiment stations on account of its being 
more drought-resistant than Indian corn. It will give heavier 
yields than this crop in regions where the rainfall is too light or too 
irregular for growing a good crop of corn. The sorghums are less 
liable to damage by insects than corn, and remain green far into 
the fall, so that the work of filling the silo may be carried on long 
after the corn is ripe and the leaves all dried up. Yields of green 
sorghum of 20 tons per acre are reported from Kansas, or one-half 
as much again as a good crop of corn. It is important, in making 
silage from sorghum, that it be harvested late, when the seed has 
become hard, as it will make a very acid silage if cut at an earlier 
stage of growth. Cut at harvest time, it will make a good quality 

5 Farmers' Bulletin 578. 

6 Reports 1891 and 1892. 

7 Report 1892. 



158 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

of silage, of nearly similar feeding value and palatability to corn 
silage. 

The grain sorghums (Egyptian corn, kafir, milo maize, feterita, 
etc.) are used for silage to a limited extent in the western States. 
They make a good silage if cut when the seed is ripe; this is not 
relished quite as well as corn silage, and is eaten in smaller amounts 
than this, e.g., by dairy cows 20 to 25 pounds per head daily as a 
maximum feed. The Kansas station found that kafir silage ranks 
second to corn silage as a feed for dairy cows, and that it is better 
than sorghum silage for production of milk. 8 

In dry, hot sections, where the grain sorghums give relatively 
large yields and where Indian corn cannot be successfully grown, 
these crops will doubtless assume great importance in the future 
as silage crops on dairy and other stock farms. 

Alfalfa is used only to a limited extent as a silage crop. There 
is ordinarily no difficulty in making it into good hay in the western 
States where this crop grows to best advantage and is of the 
greatest economic importance. It is, however, made into silage by 
many farmers; if run through a cutter and siloed immediately 
after mowing, before it has wilted much, and carefully tramped 
down in the silo, it will make good aromatic silage that is palatable 
to dairy cows, steers, sheep, and other farm animals after they have 
become accustomed to it. Like all silage made from legumes, it 
has sometimes a stronger and less agreeable flavor than corn silage, 
owing to the butyric acid formed therein, but stock soon learn to 
like it. It has not been shown, however, that alfalfa silage has a 
higher feeding value than corn silage, ton for ton, although it is 
considerably richer in protein and contains somewhat more dry 
matter per ton than corn silage. 

In California and other western States where foxtail is often 
a serious pest in alfalfa fields during the early part of the season, 
the first crop is siloed by some farmers, and the foxtail thus ren- 
dered harmless; the beards remain soft in the silage and do not 
cause trouble to farm animals eating it, as is generally the case 
when this crop is made into hay, especially if cut rather late, after 
the foxtail heads are nearly ripe. Silage from such weedy alfalfa 
will be of good quality if put up in accordance with the directions 
given, and is often better than that from pure alfalfa. The last 
crop of alfalfa is also frequently siloed in the region mentioned, 
owing to the rainy weather that is likely to prevail at this time, 
rendering it difficult to make this crop into hay. 

8 Circular 28. 



SILOS AND SILAGE 159 

Clover and other legumes are not often used as silage crops 
for the reasons stated above, and when so used the silage is generally 
made under conditions similar to those just given for alfalfa, when 
they cannot very well be cured into hay. As the legumes have a 
large proportion of leaves and tender stems, they dry out rapidly 
and must be run through a cutter and siloed as soon as possible 
after being mowed. Clover, like alfalfa, is cut for the silo when 
about one-third of the plants are in full bloom, or before the first 
single heads are beginning to wilt. According to trials conducted at 
several experiment stations, the largest yields of dry matter and of 
all feed components except fiber are obtained from clover when it 
is cut at this stage (p. 57). If the cutting has been delayed beyond 
this stage, the safer plan is to add water to the clover as it is ele- 
vated into the silo, or to add water in the silo after each load or 
half-day run. 

The losses of feed materials in the siloing process in the case of 
clover, alfalfa, etc., are but slightly larger than for corn, so far as 
can be judged from the limited data at hand regarding this point. 
When put up in the manner stated and well packed in an air-tight 
silo, the necessary loss of dry matter in clover or alfalfa will not 
be likely to exceed 10 per cent. This is a much lower loss than that 
sustained in making hay from alfalfa (and probably from clover 
and other leafy legumes as well), on account of the unavoidable 
and often considerable abrasion of leaves and tender parts in the 
process of haymaking; as previously shown, this has been esti- 
mated at 15 to 20 per cent as a minimum, and as high as 60 per 
cent of the hay crop in extreme cases (p. 59). Aside from the losses 
sustained through abrasion, rain storms, when these occur, may 
reduce the value of the hay one-half. The losses from either of 
these sources are avoided in preserving the crop in the silo, and in 
their place a small loss of 10 per cent or less will occur under 
ordinary favorable conditions through the respiration of the plant 
cells and the fermentations in the silo. 

The reason why legumes are not siloed more generally must be 
sought in the fact that it is more difficult to secure a good quality 
of silage from these crops than from Indian corn, unless the neces- 
sary conditions for success in making legume silage are clearly under- 
stood; furthermore, the flavor of the silage is not, as a rule, as agree- 
able as that of corn silage, and farm animals do not relish it quite so 
much. When once accustomed to legume silage, however, they do 
well on it; dairy cows will eat 20 to 25 pounds of clover or alfalfa 



160 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



silage per head daily. On account of the larger amount of protein 
furnished in this feed than in corn silage, less or cheaper concen- 
trates may be fed in the rations and the cost of production thus 
decreased. 

Cowpeas and soybeans are used as silage crops to some extent 
in the South, either mixed with Indian corn (Fig. 32), as previously 
stated, or grown and siloed separately. The Maryland station 
found cowpea silage of somewhat higher feeding value than corn 
silage. The cowpeas should he siloed when the peas are well ma- 




Fig. 32. — Corn and soybeans grown for silage. When cut and placed in the silo (one 
ton of soybeans to three tons of corn) this crop makes a very valuable feed for dairy cows. 
Wisconsin Station.) 



tured, since immature vines make an acid, watery silage. Farmers 
who have had considerable practical experience with this silage are 
of the opinion that it has no equal as a feed for cows and sheep; 
it is also a good hog feed, and is considered greatly superior to pea- 
vine hay for all these animals. In feeding experiments at the Dela- 
ware station, six pounds of pea-vine silage fully took the place of 
one pound of wheat bran, and the product from one acre was found 
equivalent to two tons of bran. 

Soybeans make silage of a fair quality when siloed alone, and 
can l)e more easily handled than cowpeas. The larger late varie- 
ties yielding heavy crops of forage are to be preferred for the silo. 



SILOS AND SILAGE 161 

Corn-soybean silage gave better results with dairy cows than straight 
soybean silage, in experiments by Professor Humphrey and the 
author at Wisconsin station. 9 

Pea or corn cannery refuse is often put up in large silage 
stacks near the factories or in ordinary silos. It makes a valuable 
fvvd for fattening cattle, sheep, or dairy cows, and compares favor- 
ably with corn silage; by some feeders it is considered superior to 
this silage, especially for dairy cows. It is also fed to horses, mules. 
and hogs to a limited extent. 10 Like other kinds of silage, it should 
be fed with dry hay or cornstalks, and, for best results, with some 
grain feed, and not as exclusive feed, as is sometimes done. 

Green oats and other cereal fodders are occasionally siloed when 
grown for forage or in case they cannot be used for grain. They 
are cut when the kernels are past the milky stage and filled into the 
silo after having been run through a cutter. If the grain has be- 
come nearly ripe, it is necessary to add considerable water to the 
green fodder as it goes into the silo, either through the blower or in 
the silo after each load, and the cut mass must be carefully dis- 
tributed in the silo and tramped down along the wall of the silo. 
Oat silage made in this manner is of excellent quality and furnishes 
a very palatable, nutritious feed for cattle and sheep. 

Beet tops and leaves are generally siloed in European beet- 
growing countries by being placed in large trenches in the field and 
covering these with boards or straw and a layer of dirt. Preserved 
in this way, they make a slimy, strong-smelling silage, which is, 
however, greatly relished by milch cows and fed heavily on the 
dairy farms on the Continent. Because of the shallowness of the 
pits, large losses of feed materials are sustained by this method 
of siloing, viz., 25 to 33 per cent or more of the dry matter in the 
leaves and tops. 

Beet pulp is preserved in similar trenches or shallow pits in the 
western States where the manufacture of beet sugar is an important 
industry. The siloed (" cured ") beet pulp is an excellent feed for 
fattening steers, sheep, or dairy cows; as it is made mostly in re- 
gions where alfalfa is the main hay crop, it is always fed with alfalfa 
hay. which it supplements nicely, being high in insoluble carbo- 
hydrates (2.8 per cent) and relatively low in protein (1.0 per cent 
crude protein and 0.3 per cent digestible crude protein). Its feed- 
ing value may be considered equal to about one-half that of corn 
silage. Of other materials made into silage may be mentioned: 

'Report 21. p. G7; Cornell Bulletin 310. 
10 Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 45. 
11 



162 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Apple pomace, 11 wet brewers' grains, sorghum bagasse, cane tops, 12 
potato tops, hop vines, sugar-beet tops and shocked corn, 13 prickly 
pears, 14 thistles, and other weeds. 15 

None of these materials are, however, of sufficient importance to 
call for more than a mere mention. 

Publications by Experiment Stations on Silos and Silage Crops, 
(r., report; b., bulletin; c, circular.) — Ark., r. ii, 1889, pp. 68-77; Col., b. 
30, 1895, pp. 21-23; b. 200, Aug., 1914; Conn. (Storrs), b. 70, Jan., 1912; 
Del., r. 1902, p. 30; Fla., b. 78, Mar., 1905; 92, Mar., 1908; 16, Jan., 1892; 
111., b. 43, 101; Ind., b. 40, June, 1892, b. 163; Iowa, b. 100, July, 1908; 
107, June, 1910; 141, July, 1913; c. 6, Jan., 1913; Kan., b. 6, June, 1889, 
pp. 61-74; c. 28, b. 48; La., b. 143, Mar., 1914; Md., r. 1889-91; b. 129, July, 
1908; Mich., b. 47, April, 1889; spec. b. 6, Dec, 1896; b. 255, May, 1909; 
Minn., b. 40; Miss., b. 8, Aug., 1889; Mo., c. 48, 67; Mont., b. 94, July, 1913; 
Neb., b. 17, 1891; b. 138, May, 1913; N. H., b. 14, May, 1891; c. 16, June, 
1914; N. J., b. 161; N. Y. (Geneva), b. 102, N. S.; N. Y. (Cornell), b. 167, 
March, 1899; N. C, b. 80, Oct., 1891; N. D., b. 98, July, 1912; Ohio, b. 5, vol. 
ii, No. 3, S. S., June, 1889; Okla., c. 33, 34, and 36, June-Aug., 1914; Ore., 
b. 9, Feb., 1891; b. 85; Pa. (Bd. of Agr.), r. 1894, pp. 232-237; b. 118, Oct., 
1912; S. D., b. 51, Feb., 1897; Tenn., b. 105, April, 1914, vol. 17, No. 1, Jan., 
1904; Va., b. 53, pp. 53-80; 70, pp. 115-119; 182, June, 1909; Wash., b. 14, 
Nov., 1894; pop. b. 10, Sept., 1908; W. Va., b. 129; Wis., b. 19, April, 1889; 
28, July, 1891; 59, May, 1897; 83, April, 1900; Farmers' B. 32, Nov., 1895; 
292, Dec, 1907; 353, April, 1909; 556, Oct., 1913; 578, May, 1914; Bur. Ani- 
mal Industry, r. 23, 1906; c 136, Jan., 1909; Ontario (Canada) , b. 32, Aug., 
1888; 42, May, 1889; r. 1905, p. 101; (Bur. of Ind.) b. 39, April, 1892; 
Ottawa (Canada), b. 65. 

QUESTIONS 

i. What is a silo, and of what materials are silos built? 

2. What is the capacity of a round silo 16 feet in diameter and 36 feet high? 

Of one 14 feet in diameter and 32 feet high ? 

3. Of what dimensions would you build a silo of a capacity of (a) 50 tons, 

(6) 100 tons? 

4. What capacity and dimension of silo would you need for a herd of 25 dairy 

cows, feeding these on the average (a) 30 pounds per head daily for 
a period of 120 days, (6) 25 pounds daily for a period of 200 days? 

5. Give three important points in building silos. 

6. State the main advantages of the silo on American dairy and stock farms. 

7. Mention the six main silage crops and their characteristics for feeding 

different classes of farm animals. 

11 Vermont Report 1903. 
"Louisiana Bulletin 143, p. 12. 
13 Wisconsin Bulletin 228, p. 42. 
" New South Wales Gazette, 8, p. 505. 

15 Ibid., 9, p. 71. See also " A Book on Silage," by the author, Rev. ed., 
pp. 34 and 35. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE CONCENTRATES 

Concentrates 1 are feeding stuffs containing a large amount of 
nutrients in small bulk, such as grains, mill feeds, and oil meals. 
Another general name for these feeding stuffs is concentrated feeds 
or " grain feeds." They are, in general, characterized by relatively 
high amounts of valuable feed components and a high digestibility, 
and by relatively low amounts of water and fiber. There are prob- 
ably several hundred feeds of this kind used for the nutrition of 
farm animals in this country, but only the more important kinds 
will be considered in this book. They may conveniently be dis- 
cussed under the following heads: 

1. Grains and other seeds. 

2. Flour-mill and cereal feeds. 

3. Brewery and distillery feeds. 

4. Starch- and glucose-factory feeds. 

5. Sugar-factory feeds. 

6. Oil-mill feeds. 

7. Packing-house feeds. 

8. Dairy products. 

9. Proprietary feeds. 

10. Miscellaneous feeds. 

I. CEREAL GRAINS 

The cereal grains are standard feeds, more or less familiar to 
all farmers, and until recently the main reliance of feeders for con- 
centrates. When market prices are not prohibitive, no better or more 
highly nutritious feeds can be obtained for feeding farm animals. 
The cereals contain a medium percentage of protein (8 to 12 per 
cent, nearly all in albuminoid form), a high percentage of carbo- 
hydrates (about 70 per cent, largely starch), and a medium fat 
content (2 to 5 per cent). The percentage of ash is rather low on 
account of relatively large amounts of carbohydrates and other 
organic components, but it is high in potash and phosphoric acid, 
and low in lime. The starch in the grains is formed during the last 
part of the growing period; hence, if this is checked by drought 
or lodging of the crops, the grains will be lower in carbohydrates 
and relatively higher in protein than normally ripened grain. 
Damaged, shrunken grains, No. 3, No. 4, or rejected grains are, 
therefore, as a general rule, of a higher feeding value than grain 
that is graded high and commands the highest prices on the market. 
The leading cereals, so far as stock feeding goes, will now be con- 

1 This term was originally introduced by Professor W. A. Henry, of 
Wisconsin, in the nineties, and has now come into general use. 

163 



164 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



sidered in the order of their importance for this purpose, followed 
by the minor grains, leguminous seeds, and oil-bearing seeds. 

Indian corn (maize, Zea mays) is the most important cereal 
crop in our country. In 1909 the area in corn made up more than 
one-half of the entire acreage devoted to grain raising; wheat com- 
ing second, with 28 per cent of the total acreage, and oats third 
(20 per cent of the total acreage). Corn was grown on 82 out of 
every 100 American farms, according to the United States census 
of that year. While Indian corn may be grown successfully in 
every State in the Union, it thrives best and reaches its greatest 
importance as a cereal and a forage plant in the vast interior of our 
continent, lying between the large eastern and western mountain 
ranges, especially in the prairie States in or near the Mississippi 
valley. The latter are generally spoken of as the " Corn belt." 
The most important corn-producing States, according to the census 
of 1909, were: 

Illinois (with a production of 390,000,000 bushels), Iowa 
(342,000,000), Indiana (195,000,000), Missouri (191,000,000), 
Nebraska, Ohio, and Kansas following in the order given, each with 
yields of over 150,000,000 bushels of corn. The entire corn crop 
for the whole United States for the year given aggregated nearly 
a billion and a half dollars in value. 

Corn is the most variable of all cereals, both as regards the size 
to which it grows and the form of the kernel of the different varie- 
ties. " In the South the tropical corn stems, four or five months 
from planting, carry great ears burdened with grain so high that 
a man can only touch them by reaching high above his head. At 
the other extreme, the Mandan Indian in the country of the Red 
River of the North developed a race of corn which reached only to 
the shoulders of the squaw, with tiny ears borne scarcely a foot from 
the ground on pigmy stalks." (Henry.) 

There are six different races of Indian corn, but only three 
of these are of importance for feeding farm animals, viz., dent, 
flint, and sweet corn. The average composition of these races is as 
follows : 

Average Chemical Composition of Indian Corn, in Per Cent 





Ash 


Crude 
protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 

free 

extract 


Fat 


Dent corn 

Flint corn 

Sweet corn 


1.5 
1.4 
1.9 


10.3 
10.5 
11.6 


2.2 
1.7 

2.8 


70.4 
70.1 
66.8 


5.0 
5.0 

8.1 



THE CONCENTRATES 165 

The main difference in the composition of these three races lies 
in the higher fat, protein, ash, and fiber contents of sweet corn, and 
its lower nitrogen-free extract, than that of the other races. Of 
the differences given those in the protein, fat, and carbohydrate 
contents are the most important; the high percentages of fat and 
sugar in sweet corn are probably responsible for the fondness of 
stock for this corn. 

Characteristics of Corn. — Although fairly rich in protein, corn 
is especially a carbohydrate grain, containing nearly 70 per cent of 
pure starch. Its high fat content (about 5 to 8 per cent) increases 
its value as a fattening and heat-producing feed and adds to its 
palatability to farm animals. Corn is low in ash (less than 2 per 
cent), and this contains only a small proportion of lime and phos- 
phorus; hence corn is less valuable than other cereals for feeding 
young stock and for milk-producing animals and poultry, all of 
which require considerable mineral matter for building up their 
bone structure, or for ash in milk or egg-shells. By feeding corn 
as a sole feed to pigs, farmers in the corn belt and elsewhere have 
sustained large losses through overfattened, weakly swine, with 
poor bone, that fell an easy prey to disease (p. 301). 

As shown elsewhere, corn can be supplemented for best results 
with feeds rich in protein and mineral substances in feeding the 
classes of live stock mentioned. Corn is fed either whole as ear 
corn, or shelled or ground. The best method of feeding varies 
according to the kind and age of the animal, and will be considered 
under the respective classes of live stock, along with the adaptability 
and general value of corn in each case. Instead of grinding the 
shelled corn, the ear corn is sometimes ground "cob and all." 
This feed, known as corn and cob meal, has been found to be of value 
in making a lighter feed than corn meal, and makes a good feed for 
horses, steers, and milch cows. Experiments have shown that it 
has a similar value to corn meal, pound for pound, for these animals. 

Ear corn contains varying proportions of cob, according to the 
race, variety, and maturity of the corn, an average ratio for dent 
corn being 14 pounds of cob to 56 pounds of shelled corn. The cob 
is very low in valuable feed materials and contains about 30 per 
cent fiber; the carbohydrates are composed largely of pentosans (31 
per cent) and substances of lower feeding value than starch. The 
cob therefore adds but little to the value of the ground corn in it- 
self, but the benefit from grinding the corn and cob together comes 
from the mechanical effect, rendering the ground meal lighter and 
insuring a more complete action of the digestive juices on the same. 



166 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



Corn Proteins. — The proteins of corn, according to Osborne, 
are composed of about 58 per cent zein (a characteristic alcohol- 
soluble protein), albumen, globulin, and proteose, together 6 per 
cent, and the remaining 30 per cent glutelin. 2 While little is known 
so far regarding the specific nutritive properties of the different 
protein substances, it seems evident that the special corn proteins 
possess important advantages over those of the wheat or the oat 
plant. Investigations conducted during a series of years at the 
Wisconsin station have shown that corn is the only one of the three 
cereals which can properly nourish dairy cows for long periods and 
kept them in a strong, healthy condition so that they will give 
birth to normally-developed, vigorous calves. 3 It has not been 
established that this difference in the nutritive effects of the three 
plants fed by themselves is due to differences in the composition 
of the protein compounds, but, with our present incomplete knowl- 
edge of this subject, it seems most likely that the phenomena brought 
to light in the important investigations referred to must be ex- 
plained by differences in the inner constitution of the proteins in 
these crops. 

Oats are a highly-prized feed for farm animals, especially horses, 
cows, sheep, and young stock. Next to corn, they are the most 
important cereal for feeding livestock in the United States. Their 
cost frequently makes them rather expensive for feeding other 
stock than horses, but, when not too costly, there is no better con- 
centrated feed for the animals mentioned. Oats vary greatly in 
their percentage of hulls; a good quality of oats contains, on the 
average, about 30 per cent hulls, while light oats may contain con- 
siderably over 40 per cent hulls (or 16 per cent fiber). Oats con- 
tain more fiber and protein and nearly as much fat as corn, as will 
be seen from the analyses given below : 



Composition of Oats and Oat Hulls, in Per Cent 





Protein 


Fat 


Fiber 


Ash 


Digestible 




Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
and fat 


Oats 


11.4 
3.4 


4.8 
1.3 


10.8 
30.7 


3.2 
6.7 


8.8 
1.3 


58.9 


Oat hulls 


39.9 



2 Science, 1913, p. 185; Journal Biological Chemistry, 1913, xxxi, No. 2. 

3 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 17. 



THE CONCENTRATES 



167 



The hulls serve a similar purpose as corn cobs in grinding the 
grain, making the meal lighter and more easily digested. Oats 
are generally fed whole, however, except in the case of old or very 
young animals that cannot masticate their feed thoroughly. Ground 
or rolled oats are to be preferred for feeding such animals. The 
favorable effect of oats on horses has long been known, and it has 
been held that no other grain or feed is equal to oats for them. 
It has been stated by various scientists that oats contain a special 
stimulating principle not found in other grains, but the matter has 
not yet been fully settled. In 1883 Sanson, a French chemist, 
claimed to have discovered a characteristic nitrogenous alkaloid 
in oats called " avenin," having a stimulating effect on the motor 
nerves of the horse, but subsequent investigators have been 
unable to verify the presence of such a compound. The careful 
and exhaustive studies by Osborne have shown that the proteins 
of the oat kernels are made up of glut en in (about 11 per cent) 
and a small amount of a globulin called avenalin (1.5 per cent). 
It is very likely that the digestive ferments found in oats are 
of importance in the digestion of this grain. The mechanical 
effect of oats in inciting a free flow of digestive juices may also be a 
factor in bringing about the favorable results which oats doubtless 
produce in the feeding of horses. 

New oats must be fed with care to horses, as they have a decided 
loosening effect on the bowels. The change in this respect that takes 
place in oats in storage also, in all probability, comes as a result of 
the action of the oat enzymes on some of the constituents of the oats. 4 

Digestibility of Oats. — The following summary of digestion 
coefficients shows the extent to which the different classes of farm 
animals can digest oats: 

Average Digestion Coefficients for Oats, in Per Cent 



Animals used 


Number of 
trials 


Dry 

matter 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Fat 


Ruminants 

Horses 

Poultry 


6 

4 

13 


70 
74 
63* 


77 
84 
71 


31 
22 


77 
82 
90 


89 

81 

88 



* Organic matter. 



Horses are evidently able to digest the dry matter of oats, as 
well as the protein and nitrogen-free extract, better than do rumi- 



Farmers' Bulletin 420. 



168 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

uants, while these animals digest the fiber and fat better than do 
horses. 

Oats do not have quite as high digestibility as Indian corn, so 
far as fiber and nitrogen-free extract are concerned, due to the 
higher percentage and the more woody character of the fiber in 
oats than in corn. The coefficients for protein and fat in the two 
grains, on the other hand, are about similar. The high fat contents 
of these two grains are doubtless important factors in making them 
palatable stock feeds. Oats, as a rule, have a somewhat lower feed- 
ing value than corn, although this depends largely on the combina- 
tion in which they are fed. In general, a mixture of the two grains 
gives better results than either fed alone. This rule does not hold 
good, however, in the case of oats for horses (p. 287). 

Corn and Oats (" Ground feed "). — Mixtures of corn and oats 
are ground together and sold in immense quantities in eastern and 
central States as " ground feed " or " ground corn and oats." This 
is used for feeding horses and dairy cows, especially the former, 
for which purpose it is well adapted. A good grade of corn and oats 
makes a valuable horse feed, but low-grade materials, like oat hulls, 
refuse from oatmeal factories, ground corn cobs, etc., are often added 
in making the feed, and its purchase cannot be recommended outside 
of States which have feed inspection laws on their statute-books, 
where the feed may be bought on definite guarantees of protein, fat, 
and maximum fiber contents. The wholesome effect of feed inspec- 
tion laws has been strikingly illustrated in the quality of the 
ground feed sold in a State before and after the passage of such 
protective laws. 5 

Ground oats and corn are generally sold on a guarantee of 9 to 
10 per cent protein, 3' to 4 per cent fat, and 7 to 9 per cent maximum 
.fiber, according to the proportions of the two grains entering into 
the feed. These may vary from one of corn to three of oats by 
weight to three of corn and one of oats. The market prices of the 
two grains determine largely the proportions used of each, more 
corn being used when this grain is the cheaper, and vice versa. 
Since corn contains only about 2 per cent fiber, and oats, on the 
average, about 10 per cent, mixtures of the two grains will not 
be likely to contain over 7 per cent fiber. A fiber content of over 
9 per cent is conclusive evidence that the ground feed is either 
adulterated, or that a very poor grade of light oats was used in its 
manufacture. 

5 Wisconsin Circular 30, p. 83, January, 1912. 



THE CONCENTRATES 169 

Barley is mainly used for stock feeding on the Pacific coast in 
this country, but in middle and northern Europe it is one of the 
common grain feeds for farm animals. It makes an excellent feed 
for horses and dairy cows, and, fed with dairy by-products, produces 
a fine quality of pork. It is generally fed ground, cracked, or rolled. 
The last method of preparation is considered preferable, because 
fine-ground barley forms a pasty mass in the mouth of animals 
and is more likely to give rise to digestive troubles than when rolled, 
as is the case with fine-ground corn or corn and oats for horses. 
There is a prejudice among some farmers against feeding barley 
to milch cows, but this is doubtless unfounded, for its value for 
milk production has been fully established. In an experiment at the 
California University Farm a cow that received green alfalfa or 
alfalfa hay and only rolled barley in addition, 10 pounds daily as a 
maximum feed, produced an average of 60 pounds of milk for a 
period of over three months, and not only did better on this feed, 
but kept up better in her milk flow than during any previous lacta- 
tion period. 

Barley is higher in protein and carbohydrates than oats, and 
lower in fat, containing, on the average, 12.0 per cent protein, 1.8 
per cent fat, 4.2 per cent fiber, 68.7 per cent nitrogen-free extract, 
and 2.5 per cent ash. It has a high digestibility, viz., on the average : 

For ruminants, protein 73 per cent, fat 79 per cent, and nitrogen-free 
extract 92 per cent. 

For horses, protein 80 per cent, fat 42 per cent, and nitrogen-free ex- 
tract 87 per cent. 

For swine, protein 76 per cent, fat 05 per cent, and nitrogen-free ex- 
tract 90 per cent. 

While it is considered that rain or foggy weather during ripen- 
ing injures the quality of barley for brewing, this does not affect 
its feeding value in any way, and barley unfit for brewing can often 
be obtained for feeding purposes at a low figure. 

Rye is less used for stock feeding in America than the three 
cereal grains considered in the preceding. Its value for this purpose 
is, however, well established. It is the common bread grain in 
northern Europe, and is also fed to stock when its price is not too 
high. Bye does not differ greatly from barley in the composition 
or feeding value. Its average composition is : 11.3 per cent protein, 
1.9 per cent fat, 1.5 per cent fiber, 74.5 per cent nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, and 2.1 per cent ash. Its average digestion coefficients, as 
determined with cows, are: Protein, 80 per cent; fat, 86 per cent, 
and nitrogen-free extract, 80 per cent. 

8 Unpublished results. 



170 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Eye makes a valuable feed for horses and fattening swine; it is 
often fed soaked to the latter farm animals, and is preferably fed 
ground and mixed with other concentrates to other classes of live- 
stock. Eye was found to have about the same feeding value as barley 
in extensive Danish swine-feeding experiments, and the quality of 
the pork produced was satisfactory. The best results were, how- 
ever, obtained with mixtures of the two cereals. 

Wheat is too high-priced, as a general rule, to be used for feed- 
ing farm animals. In exceptional cases it may be advisable to use 
it for this purpose, however, and it is well, therefore, to understand 
its nutritive value and main characteristics, especially since the 
lower grades of wheat can generally be used for stock feeding to 
advantage, even at present-day market prices for grains. 

Wheat stands close to barley in composition and feeding value. 
It is of slightly lower value as a feed for fattening animals, but 
is superior to this cereal in nutritive effect for young and growing 
animals and for dairy cows. It is lower in fat but somewhat higher 
in protein and carbohydrates than corn ; its digestibility is as high 
as that of the other cereals except oats, which, as stated, have a 
somewhat lower digestibility than these on account of their rela- 
tively high fiber content. 

Wheat is generally ground before feeding. On account of its 
large content of gliadin and glutenin, it forms a sticky paste when 
chewed, and for this reason is preferably fed in mixtures with more 
bulky concentrates, like oats or wheat bran. 

Damaged ivheat (salvage wheat from elevator fires, etc.) is at 
times obtainable at a low cost; the better grades make a valuable 
feed, but slightly inferior to a good grade of wheat. 

Grain screenings are mixtures of broken or shrunken grain, 
weed seeds, chaff, pieces of straw, dirt, etc., which are obtained in 
the cleaning of grain in elevators. They vary considerably in their 
chemical composition and feeding value, according to their origin 
and the character of the impurities contained in the grain. On 
account of the large proportion of different weed seeds in screenings, 
they are expensive feeds at any price to farmers who wish to keep 
their land as free as possible from noxious weeds. Many of the 
weed seeds in screenings will pass through the animals uninjured 
and will germinate when the manure is put on the land, 7 thus 
rendering cultivation more expensive and reducing the yield of 
cultivated crops through the growth of weeds. Many farmers do 
not, therefore, wish to buy screenings under any condition, and this 

7 Vermont Bulletins 131 and 138. 



THE CONCENTRATES 



171 



is the only safe position to take towards whole screenings. Finely- 
ground screenings often make satisfactory and cheap feeds, and, if 
carefully ground, are not, as a rule, objectionable. Poisonous weed 
seeds, like corn cockle, are found in most screenings, but they are 
not ordinarily present in sufficient quantities to give rise to any 




Fig. 33. — Weeds growing from seed found in a mixed "dairy feed." This contained 
100,000,000 weed seeds to the ton. The soil was sterilized, so that it is certain that every 
plant grew from a weed seed in the feed. Most samples of whole screenings contain still 
larger numbers of weed seeds. (Vermont Station.) 



trouble in stock feeding. Sheep and poultry appear to be able to 
destroy weed seeds of screenings more thoroughly than other farm 
animals, and do well on them (Fig. 33). 

Screenings are often used in the manufacture of mixed feeds 
and molasses feeds, in the latter case serving. as absorbent for the 



172 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



molasses. Both screenings and molasses feeds manufactured from 
them may be considered worth somewhat less than wheat bran, ton 
for ton. 

Emmer (often incorrectly called speltz) is a drought-resistant 
cereal crop, especially valuable in the semi-arid western United 
States, where it is extensively grown and fed to stock. Experiment 
stations in that region have experimented extensively with emmer 
for a number of years, and have shown that it is well worthy of a 
trial by farmers in those States, along witli oats or where oats can- 
not be grown. Emmer yields good crops of grain (20 to 40 bushels 
per acre), and compares favorably in feeding value with oats and 
barley. For best results, mixtures of oats or other grains and emmer 
are ground and fed, instead of clear emmer, which is rather fibrous 
and bulky. The hulls of emmer make up about 20 per cent of the 
grain. It resembles oats more than any other grain crop, and is 
largely used for feeding farm animals as a substitute for oats. The 
following compilation of digestion coefficients of these two grain 
crops and of barley shows that emmer stands between these in digest- 
ible components, and that it stands nearer oats than barley : 8 

Digestible Components in Oats, Emmer, and Barley, in Per Cent 





Protein 


Fat 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Nutritive 
ratio 




10.73 
9.96 
9.37 


3.59 
1.36 
1.66 


3.17 
4.98 

1.86 


51.04 
52.06 
69.96 


1:5.8 
1:6.0 




1:9.0 







Buckwheat is rarely used for feeding farm animals, either 
whole or ground, since it is too valuable as a raw material for the 
manufacture of buckwheat flour. The by-products obtained in the 
manufacture of this flour will be considered under " Flour and 
Cereal Mill Feeds" (p. 183). 

Sweet and non-saccharine sorghums are important bread 
crops for the peoples of Asia and Africa. " In India alone over 
33,000,000 acres of land are annually devoted to growing the millets, 
including the sorghums, kafir, milos, etc., a greater area than is 
devoted to wheat raising, rice, and Indian corn combined. 9 

8 Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 120; 
Farmers' Bulletin 460. 

9 Church, "Food Grains in India," 1901; cited in Henry, "Feeds and 
Feeding," p. 147. 



THE CONCENTRATES 



173 



The sorghums may he divided into two classes : (1) The sweet or 
saccharine varieties, of which amber or orange cane is mostly grown, 
and (2) the non-saccharine or grain sorghums, which are smaller 
and have pithy steins, with but little sweet juice (Fig. 34). Sweet 
sorghum is grown primarily for forage and, to a limited extent at 
the present day, for the production of syrup. The non-saccharine 
sorghums are grown both for grain and for forage. The grain sor- 
ghums are represented in this country by kafir corn, durra, and 
milo maize, and a few other varieties of minor importance. Different 
strains of each of these are grown and possess different characteris- 




Fig. 3±. — Types of grain sorghums; these crops are of increasing importance for grain 
and forage to farmers in the western United States. From left to right: 1 and 2, yellow 
Milo; 3 and 4, white and brown Kaoliang; 5, Feterita (Sudan Durra); 6 to 8, red, pink, 
and black-hulled Kafir corn. (Breeders' Gazette.) 



tics that make them of special value under varying conditions. The 
main cultivated strains are: White and black kafir, white, brown, 
and Sudan durra, and yellow milo. The kafirs and milo occur in 
standard and dwarf varieties. White durra is also called Jerusalem 
corn; brown durra, Egyptian corn, 10 and Sudan durra, feterita. 
The grain sorghums are valuable forage and grain plants, especially 
suited to a dry and hot climate. The most striking characteristic of 
the grain sorghums is their ability to withstand drought, and to 
make a good growth with but little or no rainfall. After periods 
of protracted drought, they will resume growth as soon as water 

10 Both white and brown durras are often incorrectly called Egyptian 



174 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



becomes available. In this respect they differ greatly from Indian 
corn, which will not yield satisfactorily when once checked in its 
growth. This quality makes the grain sorghums especially valuable 
under the conditions in the semi-arid western and southwestern 
States. They bid fair to become of great agricultural importance 
in these sections of the country. The areas sown to grain sorghums 
in Kansas (Fig. 35), Oklahoma, and Texas have increased in a 
marked manner during the last ten years, and they are apparently 
replacing Indian corn to some extent in these States. 11 

The grain of the non-saccharine sorghums resembles corn in 
chemical composition ; it contains a higher percentage of starch than 
corn, but less protein and fat, and may be considered not quite equal 
to corn in feeding value or palatability. The grain should be 



A/?EA OT G&A/Af-^O&GHL/M AATO COrf/ /Af tf/ffl/S/lS. 
A4IJ.LIOWS Or ACRES 



f30 +\=^ 



/SOS gggj^ 



,907 m^ 
taoa ^^_ 



,909 
fS/O 
,9// 
tste 

f3!3 






— 



«-. 



_ 



_ 



F7~~~\ 3J?/1/,V SO/?GWU»t 



Fig. 35. — Diagram showing increase in area sown to grain sorghums in Kansas during the 
decade 1904-13. (Ball.) 

threshed and ground for feeding to fattening cattle, while it may 
be fed threshed or in the head to working horses and sheep, and 
preferably " heads and all " to idle horses, colts, dairy cattle, and 
young stock. Ground grain is fed with skim milk to calves, and 
moistened with water or skim milk to hogs. As it is quite carbon- 
aceous (K.R., milo 1: 9.7, Egyptian corn 1: 8.9), it makes a good 
supplemental feed for hogs fed skim milk or alfalfa, either hay or 
pasture. 

Rice. — As in the case of many other seeds, rice is too valuable 
as a human food to allow of its use for feeding farm stock, and it is 
only used for this purpose to a limited extent in rice-growing sec- 
tions. The hull or husk of the rice kernel is rough and brittle, and 



U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1913, p. 221. 



THE CONCENTRATES 175 

is usually removed before the grain is sold. The hull is not, as we 
shall see, suited for feeding livestock, on account of its sharp barbs 
and high content of ash (silica, see p. 186), but it is sometimes 
ground with rice for feeding purposes. The hulled rice is a very 
valuable fattening feed. It contains considerably more nitrogen- 
free extract than any other available feeding stuff, viz., nearly 80 
per cent, while its protein content is low (on the average, 7.4 per 
cent). Owing to the high starch content and the minute amount 
of' fiber in the hulled rice, it has the highest percentage digestibility 
of any vegetable feed known, its digestion coefficients being as fol- 
lows, according to the German digestion trials: 

Dry matter, 98 per cent; protein, 86 per cent; nitrogen-free 
extract, 100 per cent, and fat, 90 per cent. 

According to the Louisiana station, the ground, rough rice is 
worth 7 per cent more than corn as a feed for farm stock, and 
hulled rice is worth 16 per cent more. Supplemented with cotton- 
seed meal and other high-protein feeds, ground rice furnishes 
southern farmers a highly nutritious ration for cattle, sheep, or 
horses. The only thing that stands in the way of its general use 
for feeding is its cost. 

II. LEGUMINOUS AND OIL-BEARING SEEDS 

The leguminous seeds, like peas and beans, soybeans and cow- 
peas, are valuable concentrated feeds, and their use for feeding 
farm animals is increasing every year, as farmers come to realize 
their value and appreciate that they can greatly reduce their feed 
bills by growing high-protein forage and grain crops on their farms. 
At the same time the fertilizer bills may be reduced, since these 
crops render available for plant use the free nitrogen of the air 
through symbiosis with certain soil bacteria, and leave the soil 
richer in this expensive fertilizer element than it was before the 
crop was grown thereon (p. 113). These grains have a high digesti- 
bility and contain two or three times as much digestible protein as 
the cereal grains. With the exception of soybeans, which contain 
nearly 15 per cent digestible fat, the leguminous seeds are all very 
low in this component, containing only about 1 per cent thereof. 
Further information as to the character of the seeds given will be 
found under the discussion of the respective crops as forage plants. 
The chemical composition of these seeds will be seen from the 
following : 



176 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Chemical Composition of Leguminous Seeds, in Per Cent 



Canada field pea 

Horse bean 

Soybean 

Cowpea 



Protein 



23.7 
26.6 
33.5 
20.5 



Fat 



.8 

1.0 

17.2 

1.5 



Ash 



Digestible 



Protein 



2.4 
3.8 
4.8 
3.2 



19.7 
23.1 
29.1 
16.8 



Carbo- 
hydrates 
and fat 



50.2 
51.6 
56.2 
57.4 



N. R. 



1:2.5 
1:2.2 
1: 1.9 
1:3.4 



Flaxseed is used only to a limited extent for feeding purposes, 
viz., mostly as a calf feed, its high price being rather prohibitive 
for feeding to other farm animals. It is always ground for calf 
feeding and mixed with boiling hot water in the proportion of a 
pound of meal to a gallon of water. The jelly-like liquid thus 
formed has a laxative effect and forms a highly-prized component 
of calf rations. It is generally fed mixed with standard, easily- 
digested concentrates, as wheat middlings, ground oats, barley, etc. 
(p. 221). Flaxseed contains about 22 per cent protein, 33 per cent 
fat (oil), and 7 per cent fiber; it has a high digestibility, containing 
over 20 per cent digestible protein, 17 per cent nitrogen-free extract, 
and 29 per cent fat ; owing to the large content of digestible fat, its 
nutritive ratio is considerably wider than oil meal, viz., 1 : 4.0 (p. 
348). 

Cotton Seed. — Only relatively small amounts of cotton seed are 
now fed to stock on account of the value of the seed for the manu- 
facture of cotton-seed oil. Formerly the seed was used quite 
generally throughout the South as a feed for farm animals. It is 
fed either raw, roasted, steamed, or boiled. The composition of 
the cotton seed is, on the average, as follows: 

Water 9.9 per cent 

Protein 19.4 per cent 

Fat 19.5 per cent 

Fiber 22.6 per cent 

Nitrogen-free extract 23.9 per cent 

Ash 4.7 per cent 

It contains about 11 per cent of digestible protein, 33 per cent 
digestible carbohydrates, and 18 per cent digestible fat. Cotton 
seed possesses a high feeding value, especially as a cattle feed, but 
has sometimes proved injurious to stock on account of the lint and 
the dust that it collects. The main reason for its present limited 
use as a stock feed is, however, that the seed can generally be sold 



THE CONCENTRATES 177 

for a good price at the oil mills, or exchanged for cotton-seed meal 
at the rate of 800 pounds per ton of seed. It has, therefore, now 
been largely replaced by cotton-seed meal in the feeding of farm 
animals. 12 

Literature on Forage and Grain Crops. — Hunt, " The Forage and 
Silage Crops," New York, 1907. Hunt, " The Cereals in America," New York, 
1904. Voorhees, " Forage Crops," New York, 1907. Shaw, " Grasses and 
How to Grow Them," New York, 1908. Shaw, " Forage Crops," New York, 
1907. Shaw, " Soiling Crops and the Silo," New York, 1902. Shaw, 
"Clovers and How to Grow Them," 190G; Wallace, "Clover Farm," 189s! 
Spillman, " Farm Grasses of the United States," New York, 1907. Wing, 
" Meadows and Pastures," Chicago. Wing, " Alfalfa Farming in America." 
Chicago, 1909. Colmrn, " The Book of Alfalfa," New York, 1908. Myrick, 
" The Book of Corn," New York, 1903. Shoesmith, " The Study of Corn," 
New York, 1910. Montgomery, "The Corn Crops," New York. Holden, 
" A, B, C of Corn Culture," 1906. Bowman and Crosley, " Corn," Ames' 
Iowa, 1908. 

Farmers' Bulletins 11, " The Rape Plant," 1893. 164, "Rape as a 
Forage Crop," 1903. 16, " Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and 
Feeding," 1894. 18, " Forage Plants for the South," 1894. 102, " Southern 
Forage Plants," 1899. 300, " Some Important Grasses and Forage Plants 
for the Gulf Coast Region," 1907. 147, " Winter Forage Crops for the 
South," 1902. 436, "Winter Oats for the South," 1911. 25, "Peanuts, 
Culture and Uses," 1895. 26, " Sweet Potatoes, Culture and Uses," 1895. 129, 
" Sweet Potatoes, Culture and Uses," 1901. 31, " Alfalfa or Lucern," 1895! 
215, "Alfalfa Growing," 1905. 276, "Alfalfa Culture in Eastern' United 
States," 1907. 339, "Alfalfa," 1908. 199, " Corn Growing," 1904. 36. " Cot- 
ton Seed and its Products," 1896. 37, " Kafir Corn," 1896 (see also Bulletin 
73). 552, "Kafir as a Grain Crop," 1913. 50, "Sorghum as a Forage 
Crop," 1897. 58, "The Soybean as a Forage Crop," 1897. 372, "Soy- 
beans," 1909. 66, " Meadows and Pastures," 1897. 86, " Thirty Poison- 
ous Plants," 1898. 89, " Cowpeas," 1899. 318, " Cowpeas," 1908 101 
"Millets," 1899. 168, "Pearl Millet," 1903. 108, "Salt Bushes," 1900.' 
110, "Rice Culture in the United States," 1900. 139, "Emmer: A Grain 
for the Semi-arid Regions," 1901. 466, "Winter Emmer," 1911. 167, 
" Cassava," 1903. 224, " Canadian Field Peas," 1905. 246, " Saccharine] 
Sorghums for Forage," 1906. 458, " The Two Best Sweet Sorghums for 
Forage," 1911. 288, " The Non-saccharine Sorghums," 1907. 322, "Milo 
as a Dry Land Grain Crop," 1908. 448, " Better Grain — Sorghum Crops," 

1911. 356, "Peanuts," 1908. 431, "The Peanut," 1911. 361, "Meadow 
Fescue, its Culture and Uses," 1909. 362, " Conditions Affecting the 
Market Value of Hay," 1909. 508, " Market Hay," 1912. 402, " Canada 
Blue Grass, its Uses and Culture," 1910. 420, " Oats, Distribution and 
Uses," 1910. 427, " Barley Culture in the Southern States," 1910. 518, 
" Winter Barley," 1912. 441, " Lespedeza or Japan Clover," 1911. 455' 
"Red Clover," 1911. 485, "Sweet Clover," 1912. 550, "Crimson Clover! 
Growing the Crop," 1913. 515, "Vetches," 1912. 529, "Vetch Growing in 
the South Atlantic States," 1913. 483, "The Thornless Prickly Pears." 

1912. 502, "Timothy Production on Irrigated Land in the Northwest." 
509, " Forage Crops for the Cotton Region," 1912. 271, " Forage Crop Prac- 
tices in Western Oregon and Western Washington," 1906. 331, " Forage 
Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma," 1908. 534, " Durum Wheat," 
1913. 



12 Farmers' Bulletin 36. 
12 



178 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletins 4, " Range Improvement in Arizona," 
1902. 15, "Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin," 
1902. 31, " Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States," 1902. 38, 
" Forage Conditions and Problems in Eastern Washington and Oregon, and 
Northwestern California and Nevada," 1903. 59, " Pasture, Meadow, and 
Forage Crops in Nebraska," 1904. 67, " Range Investigations in Arizona," 
1904. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the main cereal grains used for feeding farm animals? 

2. Give the classes of animals to which each kind is preferably fed; their 

average chemical composition and relative feeding values. 

3. What per cent of hulls do oats generally contain, and in what way are 

the hulls of importance in feeding farm animals ? 

4. What is " ground feed," and to which classes of animals is it generally 

fed? 

5. What are grain screenings? State under what conditions they may be 

safely used, and what disadvantages are incident to their use. 

6. Give the different kinds of sorghums used for feeding farm animals, and 

the special points in their favor. 

7. Name the leguminous seeds used for stock feeding, and give their average 

composition and relative value in comparison with the cereal grains. 

8. What oil-bearing seeds are used for stock feeding, and under what condi- 

tions are they used? 



CHAPTER XYII 
VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 

I. FLOUR AND CEREAL MILL FEEDS 

In the manufacture of flour or cereal products (breakfast foods) 
a large number of by-products are obtained that are of the highest 
value for stock feeding. 

The flour-mill feeds are well-known by-products that have long 
been standard feeding stuffs in all parts of the country where live- 
stock are kept. These are bran, middlings or shorts, and low- 
grade feeding flour. A brief statement of the minute structure of 
the wheat kernel will make clear the characteristic differences in 
these by-products. 

The wheat berry is covered by three different coatings of tough, . 
thick-walled cells, which contain a considerable proportion of fiber 
and but little starch. Directly beneath the innermost seed-coat is 
a layer of cells, very rich in protein, called the aleurone layer; 
inside of this is the soft white portion (endosperm) of the berry, 
made up of cells largely filled with starch grains. These also con- 
tain protein substances, known under the name of gluten (gliadin 
and glutenin, see p. 9). Within the inner starchy portion of the 
berry is found the germ containing the embryo of the wheat plant. 
The following figures show the approximate proportion of the differ- 
ent parts of the wheat berry, according to Bessey : 

Coatings or bran layers ... 5 per cent 

Aleurone layer 3 to 4 per cent 

Starch cells 84 to 86 per cent 

Germ 6 per cent 

Wheat is the main bread grain in this country. In the manu- 
facture of flour the wheat is first passed over a series of screens 
which remove the impurities contained therein, such as weed seeds, 
chaff, etc. (p. 170) . It is then scoured, and, after being heated some- 
what, is run through a series of rollers, set at decreasing distances 
apart, so that the kernels are gradually broken into smaller and 
smaller pieces. The fine floury portion formed is separated after 
each " break," and the tough outer seed-coats are thus gradually 
freed from adhering flour and make up the bran. The aim of the 
miller is to obtain all the starch cells and gluten possible from the 

179 



180 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

wheat, and to avoid the germ and the hran, including the aleurone 
layer, which would give an undesirable yellow tinge to the flour 
and lower its keeping quality. There are considerable differences 
in the nomenclature of mill feeds adopted by millers in different 
sections of the country, but the more common terms recognized by 
the trade are wheat bran, shorts or standard middlings, white 
middlings, and red-dog flour. 

Wheat bran is rich in protein and fat, and also in fiber, the 
average percentages of these components being about 15, 4, and 
10 per cent, respectively. Its digestibility is lower than that of 
the cereals, viz., dry matter 66 per cent, protein 77 per cent, fiber 
41 per cent, nitrogen-free extract 71 per cent, fat 63 per cent, 
making the percentage of digestible components: 

Protein 11.9 per cent, 

Carbohydrates and fat 47.6 per cent (N.R., 1:4.0). 

Bran is rich in mineral matter, and contains about 80 per cent 
of the phosphorus of the wheat berry; hence, it is very valuable as 
a source of this important element in feeding young, growing, or 
milk-producing animals. The ash is relatively poor in lime; in 
feeding wheat bran to the animals, it should, therefore, be supple- 
mented by hay of legumes, which is especially rich in this com- 
ponent. Wheat bran also contains 6 to 8 per cent of the organic 
phosjmorus compound phytin, to which constituent it largely owes 
its laxative properties. 

The wheat bran on the market is of two kinds: Country mill 
bran and roller or flaky bran. The former kind comes from small 
flour mills which do not have the perfect machinery for the separa- 
tion of starch-cells from the seed-coats that is found in large roller 
mills ; this bran is, therefore, higher in starch and lower in protein 
and fiber than roller bran. The value of the two kinds for feeding 
purposes will depend largely on the combinations in which it is fed, 
and the kind of animals fed. While roller bran supplies more 
protein than does country mill bran, its digestibility is likely to be 
somewhat lower on account of its larger fiber content. The differ- 
ences in the nutritive values of the two kinds of bran are, in general, 
small, however, making it advisable, in case both kinds are avail- 
able, to select whichever can be obtained at the lower price. 

Wheat bran is often high-priced in comparison with other de- 
sirable concentrates, and farmers should study the market prices 
of different feeds and the feed bulletins issued by the various ex- 
periment stations so as to be able to take advantage of low market 
prices for other feeds that may serve their purpose equally well. 



VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 181 

The fact that wheat bran is a common and valuable dairy feed 
should not lead feeders to believe that it is indispensable and must 
be bought at any price. It is often possible to buy other equally 
valuable concentrates at a lower cost. 

Bran is especially valuable for feeding stock that requires a 
liberal supply of protein and mineral matter in their rations and 
are able to digest bulky feeds; on account of its coarseness it is 
well adapted for use with heavy feeds like corn meal, buckwheat 
middlings, oil meal, etc. 

Middlings or shorts are well suited to the use of young animals 
that do not do well on bran, like pigs and calves. They are espe- 
cially valuable for feeding these classes of animals, and arc always; 
mixed with other feeds, like corn meal, ground oats or barley, oil 
meal, etc., when so used. They contain, as a rule, about 17 per 
cent protein, 5 per cent fat, and less than 8 per cent fiber. 

Red-dog flour, or dark feeding flour, is rich in starch, protein, 
and fat, containing, on the average, about 18 per cent protein, 4.5 
per cent fat, and over 60 per cent nitrogen-free extract ; its fiber 
content is generally below 2 per cent. The high percentages of 
protein and fat contained in red dog are due to the presence therein 
of the rich wheat germs which generally go into this by-product. 
It is, therefore, a more valuable feed than the best grades of 
middlings, and is also somewhat higher in price. Besides for 
feeding young animals, calves, and pigs, red-dog flour is used in 
foundry work, to prevent the mold from adhering to the castings. 

White middlings or Hour middlings are composed of a mixture 
of standard middlings and red-dog flour, and have an intermediate 
composition and feeding value between these feeds. 

Adulterated Wheat Feeds. — As a rule, the wheat feeds on the 
market are pure feeds, or free from serious adulterations, although 
of greatly varying quality. Adulterations with ground cornstalks, 
ground corn cobs, cedar sawdust, oat hulls, and weed seeds have, 
however, been identified in commercial samples in the past. 1 The 
only common adulteration of wheat bran and other wheat feeds 
is the admixture of whole or ground grain screenings. If finely 
ground, the screenings are, as a rule, rather unobjectionable, since 
the weed seeds contain considerable amounts of nutrients, but 
the whole screenings make a very undesirable adulteration, on ac- 
count of the danger of fouling the farm land with weeds by their 
use. One of the most striking recent examples of this danger that 

1 Wisconsin Bulletin 97, p. 30; U. S. Notice of Judgment, GO, 07, and 
2387. 



182 - DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

has come to the author's notice was presented by a sample of wheat 
bran examined in the feed-control work in Wisconsin. 2 The anal- 
ysis showed that 1413 whole seeds were found in 10 grams (or 
less than one-third ounce) of the bran, and the weed seeds made 
up over 10 per cent of the weight of the sample. The number 
given represents over 128,000,000 weed seeds in a ton, which 
would be distributed on the land with manure and, to a large ex- 
tent, be ready to germinate the first season. By taking up space 
and plant food that should be used by farm crops, the weeds grown 
from the seeds would decrease the production of the land and 
would also increase the cost of growing the crops (p. 171). 

The feed laws of the various States require that bran (or mid- 
lings) containing screenings must be sold as "wheat bran (or 
wheat middlings) mixed with screenings," and a statement of the 
percentage contained therein is also required in some cases. 

Oat Feeds. — The by-products in the manufacture of oatmeal 
are similar to those obtained at the flour mills, except for the 
differences in the structure of the oat kernel. Oats consist of a 
kernel and a hull which are easily separated. The former is high 
in starch, protein, and fat; the latter is low in all those com- 
ponents, and high in fiber, hence has a very low feeding value. 
As previously shown, the hulls make up about one-third of the 
oat kernel, on the average, and contain 30 to over 40 per cent fiber 
and only about 3 per cent protein. 

The hairy tips on the oats are separated in the manufacture of 
oatmeal, after the kernels are hulled, and make up the by-product 
sold as oat dust. The only other refuse feed obtained in oat mills 
is oat shorts or middlings (often sold as oat feed). 

Oat dust contains considerable protein (13.5 per cent), fat (4.8 
per cent), and other valuable feed components, with about 18 per 
cent fiber. It is, therefore, a feed of some importance, although its 
light, fluffy mechanical condition makes it difficult to feed except 
in mixtures with heavy concentrates. 

Oat shorts or middlings are the richest of the by-products from 
oats, and correspond closely to wheat middlings in chemical com- 
position, with a somewhat higher fat content than this feed. 

Oat feed contains ground oat hulls with shorts or middlings ; it 
should be bought only on a definite guarantee of its composition, 
including maximum fiber content. The oat feeds on the market 
differ greatly in composition and feeding value, according to the 

2 Circular 30, p. 79; see also Circular 97 of the same station, and Ver- 
mont Bulletin 138. 



VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 183 

condition of the feed market and the integrity of the manufacturer. 
Oat hulls are frequently ground and used as adulterants for ground 
corn and oats, or oat feeds (p. 168). Unless present in excessive 
quantities, the true quality of these feeds can be determined only 
by chemical analysis, and it is not safe, therefore, to buy such feeds 
except on a guarantee, and of reputable feed dealers or manu- 
facturers. 

Barley Feed. — In the manufacture of pearl barley or barley 
flour only one by-product is obtained, which is sold under the name 
of barley feed or meal. It resembles wheat bran closely in com- 
position, except that it contains a somewhat higher percentage of 
nitrogen-free extract and less fiber. The two feeds may, in general, 
be considered of similar feeding value. 

Rye Feeds. — Eye is used in this country mainly in the manu- 
facture of spirits and for feeding livestock; the manufacture of 
rye flour is a relatively unimportant industry. The refuse from 
rye mills is sold either as rye feed or as two separate feeds, rye bran 
and rye middlings. The process of manufacture is similar to that 
of the wheat feeds. Rye feed contains, on the average, about 15.5 
per cent protein, 0.3 per cent fat, and 5 per cent fiber. It is, 
therefore, considerably lower in fiber than wheat bran, but other- 
wise quite similar in composition to this feed. It is often sold at a 
lower price than wheat bran, and is then an economical feed, well 
worthy of a trial for feeding dairy cows or pigs. It should be fed 
in moderate amounts to pigs, as it will otherwise produce a soft 
pork of inferior quality. In Germany rye feed is considered a 
more valuable feeding stuff than wheat bran, as it is believed to 
be more easily digested and more nutritious. 3 This may be due to 
the fact that rye and rye feed contain a large amount of diastase, 
which is found in only small amounts in wheat bran. There are 
also marked differences in the protein substances of the two cereals, 
the most important one being that rye contains no glutenin, which, 
with gliadin, forms the main protein substance of wheat. 

Buckwheat Feeds. — Buckwheat flour mills supply the feed 
market with three or four by-products, viz., buckwheat hulls, bran, 
middlings, and feed. Buckwheat hulls are the coarse, black cover- 
ing of the buckwheat kernels, which are readily separated there- 
from. They have practically no feeding value whatever, although, 
if finely ground, they may serve a purpose as dilutant of heavy 
feeds, like corn meal or buckwheat middlings. The hulls contain 

3 Pott, " Landw. Futtermittel," 3, ii, p. 104. 



184 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



about 4 per cent protein, less than 1 per cent fat, nearly 50 per cent 
fiber, and 36 per cent nitrogen-free extract. Buckwheat feed means 
the entire refuse obtained in the manufacture of buckwheat flour, 
and contains ordinarily one-half to two-thirds of hulls, the balance 
being made up of the heavy, floury portion of the buckwheat grain 
immediately inside of the hulls, known as middlings or shorts. 
Buckwheat feed composed of one-half middlings and one-half hulls 
will contain about 15.7 per cent protein and 24 per cent fiber, and 
one containing one-third middlings and two-third hulls about 12 
per cent protein and 30 per cent fiber. 4 A study of the digestible 
components furnished by this feed and by wheat bran would lead to 
the conclusion that a good quality of buckwheat feed (containing 
not much over one-half hulls, by weight) is worth about 20 per 
cent less than wheat bran. Buckwheat middlings are a very valu- 
able and rich feed, containing about 28 per cent crude protein and 
7 per cent fat, with only 4 to 6 per cent fiber. It is highly prized as 
a feed for dairy cows, but cannot often be obtained as a separate 
article of commerce; most millers sell their entire amount of refuse 
as buckwheat feed. 

Corn Feeds. — The corn kernel (Fig. 36) consists of five dif- 
ferent parts : An outer and an inner layer of skin or hull, a layer 
of gluten cells, the germ, and the main starchy part (endosperm), 
some of which is hard and flinty, and some soft. The New Jersey 
station 5 made analyses of the different parts of the corn kernel 
and determined the approximate proportion of each, with results 
as shown in the table. 

Composition of Dry Substance of Corn Kernel, in Per Cent 





Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 

extract 


Fat 


Propor- 
tion of 
parts 


Entire kernel 


1.7 

1.3 

11.1 

.7 


12.6 

6.6 

21.7 

12.2 


2.0 

16.4 

2.9 

.6 


79.4 
74.1 
24.7 
85.0 


4.3 

1.6 

29.6 

1.5 


10.0 


Skin (hull) 

Germ 

Starchy and flinty part . . . 


5.5 
10.2 
84.3 



The most striking part of the data shown in the table is the 
high protein, fat, and ash contents of the corn germ. This con- 
tains 65 per cent of the total fat in the kernel, 16 per cent of the 
protein, and 62 per cent of the ash (71 per cent of the phosphoric- 

4 Wisconsin Bulletin 170, p. 76. 

Bulletin 105; see also Illinois Bulletin 87. 



VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 



185 



acid content). The hulls (skin) contain very nearly one-half of 
the total fiber, and the starchy part about 90 per cent of the total 
nitrogen-free extract of the kernel. 

The only by-products of corn or hominy mills used for feeding 
farm animals are corn bran and hominy meal. Both of these are 
obtained by similar manufacturing processes as those given under 
wheat feeds. The corn bran does not differ greatly from wheat 
bran in chemical composition; it is lower in ash and protein, and 
somewhat higher in carbohydrates and fiber, however; its digesti- 
bility is slightly higher than that of wheat bran, except for the 
protein it contains, which is consider- 
ably lower, viz., 54 per cent, against 
77 per cent for wheat bran. The two 
feeds may, in general, be considered 
of similar feeding value, in so far as 
it is possible to compare the feeding 
values of two feeds of as different nu- 
tritive ratios. 

Hominy meal, feed or chop, con- 
sists of the bran, germ, and soft floury 
portion of the kernel which are sepa- 
rated in the process of making hominy 
grits for human consumption. It 
forms a very valuable, palatable, fat- 
tening feed, of a similar composition to 
Indian corn, the main difference being 
that it is higher in fat and lower in nitrogen-free extract than is 
Indian corn, and also somewhat higher in fiber, as will be seen 
from the following average analyses : 

Chemical Composition and Digestibility of Hominy Meal, in Per Cent 




Fig. 36. — Section of corn kernel. 
("Productive Farming," Davis.) 



Total components 
Digestion coefficients. 



Digestible components . . . 
Digestible components in 



Dry 

matter 



90.4 

82 

74.1 
81.4 



Protein 



10.5 
65 

6.8 

7.8 



Fat 



8.0 
92 

7.4 
4.3 



Fiber 




Hominy meal is a highly valued feed for milch cows and fatten- 
ing steers, and may serve a useful purpose as a substitute for Indian 
corn in rations for these and other farm animals. Like all corn 



186 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



products, it is of rather uniform quality and free from adultera- 
tions. 

Rice By-products. — In the milling of rice several by-products 
are obtained which are used for stock feeding. The rice grains 
are covered by two layers : The outer coat, a hard, chaffy husk which 
is easily removed, and the inner coat, a closely-fitting cuticle or 
skin. The removal of these coatings and the manufacture of 
marketable rice are done by three operations: Husking, hulling, 
and polishing. Husking is accomplished by passing the rice be- 
tween revolving millstones, which are set far enough apart to 
crack the hull and allow the rice to fall out without cracking 
it too much. The hulls are not removed completely, there being 
always some grains which retain their husk. The by-product from 
this process is rice hulls. The rice is next passed through one or 
more hullers, which remove the cuticle or skin. The products of 
this machine are rice bran, some flour, and clean rice. The final 
process consists in polishing the rice, which is done in a special 
machine and gives the rice its lustre. The by-product from this 
process is a finely-powdered material, known as rice polish. Three 
by-products used for stock feeding are thus obtained in these 
processes, viz., rice hulls, rice meal, and rice polish. 

Eice hulls are used as a fuel at the mills and for packing eggs, 
etc. ; they are also sometimes ground and sold as " husk meal " or 
" Star bran," or used as an adulterant of rice bran. They are, how- 
ever, of no value as a feed, and are, in fact, injurious to stock, being 
provided with sharply-pointed fibers, which are strongly impreg- 
nated with silica. When taken into the stomach and intestines of an 
animal they provoke an intense irritation of the delicate membranes 
of these tracts, and may cause impaction of the bowels; fatalities 
are on record resulting from animals eating rice hulls or rice bran 
adulterated with hulls. 6 

The average chemical composition of the rice by-products is 
shown in the following table: 

Composition of Rice By-products, in Per Cent 





Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Fat 


Rice hulls 


15.6 
9.7 

4.8 


3.2 
11.9 
11.9 


36.2 

12.0 

3.3 


35.2 
46.6 
62.3 


1.0 


Rice bran 


10.1 


Rice polish 


7.2 







6 Browne, Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer, June 13, 1903; 
Louisiana Bulletin 77. 



VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 187 

In addition to the preceding by-products, a feed called " com- 
mercial rice bran " is obtained and sold in the South. This is a 
mixture of the pure bran with varying amounts of hulls, the quantity 
of the latter being sometimes as high as 50 per cent. According 
to the Texas station, 7 commercial rice bran may contain as low as 
4 per cent of protein and 2 per cent of fat, and as high as 50 per 
cent of fiber. An addition of rice hulls decreases the feeding value 
of bran in proportion to the amount of hulls added. Adulteration 
of rice bran with hulls has been largely practised by southern 
mills, and has brought the feed into disrepute. In view of the 
danger of such adulteration, rice bran should be purchased only of 
reputable dealers and on guarantees of valuable components and 
maximum fiber content. It should contain not less than 10 per 
cent protein and 6 per cent fat, and not more than 20 per cent fiber. 

Fure rice bran and rice polish are both valuable feeds which 
compare favorably with corn meal in feeding value and may be 
fed under similar conditions. At the Louisiana station rice bran 
was used successfully for one-half of the concentrates in rations for 
horses and mules, and it is also a good cow feed, if fed with high- 
protein concentrates and before turning rancid. 8 

Eice polish is a highly digestible starchy feed which is used as 
a feed for dairy cows, fattening steers, horses, and mules ; its high 
price often makes it more expensive under southern conditions than, 
e.g., cane molasses (p. 192). 

The rice feeds will not keep long before they turn rancid, on 
account of the unstable character of the oil and the high oil con- 
tent of these feeds. Eancid rice feeds are not palatable to livestock. 

Test for Rice Hulls. — Pure rice bran and rice meal contain considerable 
fat and are not moistened if placed on the surface of water. When the test 
is made with rice bran or meal adulterated with hulls, these will soon sink 
into the water. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the method of manufacture by which flour-mill feeds are obtained 

as by-products. 

2. What are the differences in composition and relative feeding value of 

wheat, wheat bran, wheat middlings, and red-dog flour? 

3. What are the common adulterations of wheat feeds, if any? 

4. Describe the by-products obtained in the manufacture of cereal feeds, 

barley, rye and buckwheat flour. 

5. Describe (a) the corn by-products ; (b) the rice by-products. 

G. Why are rice hulls a dangerous material to be used for feeding farm 
animals? 

7 Bulletin 73. 8 Wisconsin Bulletin 1G9. 



188 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



II. BREWERY AND DISTILLERY FEEDS 

The main feeds of this class met with in the trade are wet and 
dried brewers' grains, malt sprouts, and dried distillers' grains. The 
first three feeds are essentially barley products, while the last feed 
is made from mixed grains, largely rye and corn. 

Brewers' grains are the by-product obtained in the manu- 
facture of beer. The barley is steeped in Avarm water and held 
at a warm temperature until it begins to sprout; by this process 
the starch content in the grain is converted into sugar (maltose), 
through the action of the ferment diastase found in barley. When 
the malted barley contains a maximum amount of sugar it is quickly 
dried. The tiny dry sprouts are then separated and form the feed 
called malt sprouts, while the remaining dried grains make what 
is known as malt. This is treated with large quantities of water 
to extract the sugar, ash, and other soluble components; the ex- 
tracted malt makes wet brewers' grains, and these, on drying in 
vacuum, are changed into dried brewers' grains. 

On account of their large water content (70 to 80 per cent), 
the wet brewers' grains must be fed in the vicinity of breweries and 
within a short time after they have been made. As the starch of 
the barley has been largely removed by the processes of malting and 
brewing, the brewers' grains are considerably richer in protein than 
the original grain and may be considered fully as valuable a feed 
for farm animals as these. Their digestibility is somewhat lower 
than that of barley, for reasons easily seen ; but fed either wet or 
dry, the brewers' grains form a valuable feed for farm animals, 
wet grains being especially adapted for milch cows, brood sows, and 
fattening swine, and dried grains for cattle and horses. When fed 
in a sound, fresh condition and in moderate quantities, say twenty 
to thirty pounds per head daily, with dry roughage and concentrates, 
wet brewers' grains make an excellent feed for dairy cows, and can 
often be contracted for from local breweries at a low price; they may 
be considered worth about one-fourth as much as the dried grains 
for feeding stock. 

Brewers' grains have been brought into disrepute by being fed 
in excessive quantities, without dry roughage and under unsanitary 
conditions, and their use as a stock feed under such conditions is 
prohibited in most States. When the wet grains are fed to dairy 
cows, care must be taken to keep the mangers and stable scrupu- 
lously clean, so as to avoid filthy conditions and foul odors around 



VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 189 

the premises, which will seriously affect the quality of the milk 
produced and the health of the animals. 

Dried brewers' grains can be kept indefinitely and transported 
from the place of manufacture like other commercial feeds. They 
contain, on the average, 20 per cent digestible protein, 32 per cent 
digestible carbohydrates, and 6 per cent digestible fat, against 11.9 
per cent, 42.0 per cent, and 2.5 per cent, respectively, for the same 
components in wheat bran ; the two feeds, therefore, contain similar 
amounts of total digestible components. The brewers' grains have 
the advantage of containing about twice as much digestible protein 
and fat as wheat bran, but contain 10 per cent less carbohydrates. 
Dried brewers' grains form an excellent feed for cattle and horses, 
and may be fed to the former in similar quantities as wheat bran or 
small grains, while the rations for horses may consist of one-third to 
one-half of the dried brewers' grains, the balance being made up of 
corn and oats. Dried brewers' grains will prove cheaper than oats 
and quite as satisfactory, especially for hard-worked horses in need 
of an extra amount of protein. 9 

Malt sprouts are the tiny dried germs of barley that have been 
allowed to grow to about one-fourth inch in length. They form a 
light, bulky, and somewhat dusty feed, containing about 26 per 
cent protein (of which one-fourth to one-third is in amide form), 
12 per cent of fiber, and less than 2 per cent fat. On account of 
its tendency to dustiness, the feed is either fed mixed with other 
concentrates or with silage, or is moistened before being fed out. 
It is especially valuable as a dairy feed, and may be given in amounts 
of two to three pounds daily per cow; on acccount of bitter principles 
contained therein (betaine and choline), most cows object to the 
feed at first, but soon learn to like it. It is a common feed in the 
dairy sections of the country, and, as a rule, forms a relatively 
cheap source of protein. 

Dried distillers' grains are the dried residues obtained in the 
manufacture of alcohol and distilled liquors from cereals. The 
ground grains are treated with a solution of malt, thus converting 
the starch into sugar (maltose) ; by the addition of yeast, the sugar 
is changed into alcohol, which is distilled over, leaving a very 
watery residue, called distillers' slop; this is dried in especially- 
constructed driers and sold as dried distillers' grains. The dis- 
tillers' grains consist of the hulls, germ, protein, and carbohydrates 
of minor nutritive value, and make a very rich and valuable feed 

9 Massachusetts Bulletin 94. 



190 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

for farm animals. The quality of the grains will vary considerably, 
according to the cereals used in the manufacture of the distilled 
spirits; the larger the proportions of corn and the smaller that of 
rye and "malt" (small grain, so-called), the higher the grade of 
dried grains produced. The rye distillers' grains contain only 30 
per cent protein or less, and are the least valuable of the distillers' 
grains. 10 The protein in the better grades may reach 34 to 36 per 
cent, with 10 to 12 per cent of fat or more. The dried distillers' 
grains have a high digestibility and must be classed among our 
most satisfactory and economical protein feeds, of a value nearly 
similar to oil meal when fed in rations for dairy cows. It may be 
fed in quantities of two to four pounds per head daily, preferably 
mixed with other concentrates. 

III. STARCH AND GLUCOSE FACTORY FEEDS 

Three feeds are obtained as by-products in the manufacture of 
starch and glucose from Indian corn, viz., gluten feed, gluten meal, 
and germ oil meal. 

Starch and Glucose Feeds. — In the glucose factory the shelled 
corn is passed through a cleaning machine which removes pieces 
of cob, dirt, dust, etc. It is then immersed in large steeping tanks, 
where it remains for 30 to 40 hours until the corn is soft. The 
water is next run off and, in large factories, saved for further treat- 
ment. The softened corn is coarsely ground between large mill- 
stones placed well apart so as to break up the kernel and set free 
the interior starch cells. The mass is now put on sieves of fine 
bolting cloth ; the coarse hulls and germs of the corn remain on the 
sieve, while starch and gluten go through — the latter two com- 
ponents are separated by running the mixtures through a series of 
long troughs and into settling tanks; the starch, being heavier, 
sinks to the bottom, while the gluten and fat (oil) float on top 
and are skimmed off and dried. 

The gluten feed proper consists of the hulls and undissolved 
starch remaining on the sieves ; it is dried and either placed on the 
market in this condition, or after addition of the gluten, which has 
been previously extracted with naphtha for removal of most of the 
oil found therein. The steep-water is evaporated in the larger 
factories, and the solids are added to the gluten feed. The ash and 
protein contained therein go to increase the contents of these con- 
stituents in the gluten feed; on the other hand, the palatability 

10 Massachusetts Bulletin 94. 



VARIOUS FACTORY BY-PRODUCTS 191 

and keeping quality of the feed may be somewhat decreased by this 
method of manufacture. 11 

The gluten obtained in some factories is placed on the market 
as a special feed called cream gluten meal. The corn germs are 
generally kept separate and extracted, and the residue put on the 
market as corn oil cake, or, if ground, as germ oil meal. 

The composition of these various feeds put out by different 
manufacturers, as well as the nomenclature, differs somewhat. In 
general, the gluten feeds now on the market contain about 25 per 
cent protein, 4 per cent fat, and 8 per cent fiber. The ash content 
is about -i per cent, in the case of feed to which the solids in the 
steep-water have been added; and, otherwise, less than 1 per cent. 
Gluten meal, on the other hand, contains about 35 per cent protein 
and less than 10 per cent fat. Germ oil meal has a protein content 
about 11 per cent and a fat content of 6 per cent. The digestibility 
of all these feeds is nearly as high as that of Indian corn. 12 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the methods of manufacture by which brewers' grains, malt 

sprouts, and distillers' grains are obtained. 

2. What are the characteristic properties of these feeds ? 

3. Give the method of manufacture of starch- and glucose-factory feeds. 

4. State their value for feeding farm animals. 

11 Wisconsin Circular 47, p. 72. "Wisconsin Report, 1890, p. 92. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 

I. SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS 

Sugar is manufactured on a large scale in this country from two 
agricultural crops, sugar beets and sugar cane. The former crop 
furnished the raw material for about 70 per cent of the sugar manu- 
factured here during 1913-1914. The cane-sugar industry is lo- 
cated in the South, practically all cane-sugar manufactured in the 
United States being made in Louisiana. The beet-sugar factories, 
on the other hand, are located in the northern and western States, 
the States leading in this industry being Colorado, California, and 
Michigan. The by-products of importance as stock feeds are cane 
and beet molasses, and beet pulp, which is fed either wet or dried. 

Molasses is the non-crystallizable residue obtained in the treat- 
ment and evaporation of the sweet juice of sugar beets or cane. 

The beet molasses is composed of about 20 per cent moisture, 
9 per cent protein (largely amides and nitrates), and 60 per cent 
nitrogen-free extract, which is almost wholly sugar, and at least 
two-thirds sucrose, the rest being composed of glucose, raffinose, 
organic acids, pentosans, etc. Beet molasses contains about 10 per 
cent of ash, largely potash and soda. It forms a thick, salty, not 
particularly sweet liquid, which is very laxative on account of its 
content of alkali salts and organic acids, and must, therefore, be 
fed sparingly to farm animals. In feeding beet molasses it is 
generally mixed with three to four times its proportion of warm 
water and sprinkled on the hay, cut straw, or other roughage. It 
is also used in the manufacture of molasses feeds with different 
absorbents, such as dried brewers' grains, malt sprouts, alfalfa meal, 
ground grain screenings, pea meal, ground cobs, wheat bran, and 
other materials. The value of these feeds differs greatly, according 
to the character of the absorbent used. If good feed materials enter 
into their manufacture and the price of the feeds do not go too high 
in comparison with other concentrates, they may be considered 
well worth a trial. Beet molasses is used in some factories for the 
manufacture of molasses beet pulp (see p. 195). It may be fed in 
192 



SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 193 

limited quantities to all classes of farm animals, except, perhaps, to 
pigs ; according to reports by the Cornell 1 and Utah stations, 2 it is 
injurious as a swine feed and likely to produce a poor quality of 
pork. 

Cane molasses (black-strap molasses) differs from beet molasses 
mainly in the composition of the non-nitrogenous constituents and 
in its smaller protein and ash contents. Unlike beet molasses, it 
has a sweet taste and is greatly relished by farm animals. It is 
fed largely in the South to horses, mules, and fattening steers. 
According to the Louisiana station, 3 horses and mules on many 
sugar plantations in the State are fed as much as 10 pounds black- 
strap daily, per head, with excellent results, both as to the cost of 
the ration and its effect on the health of the animals and their 
working capacity. The Massachusetts station found that one gal- 
lon (12 pounds) of molasses makes a good carbohydrate feed for 
horses; a similar amount may be fed to fattening steers as a 
maximum allowance. 4 Cane molasses is especially valuable on 
account of its high sugar content and its palatability ; it serves a 
useful purpose as an appetizer and for utilizing low-grade ma- 
terials for stock feeding. It is often used for preparing animals 
for shows and sales, as it gives them a thrifty appearance and a 
smooth, shiny coat. It should be fed only in moderate amounts for 
breeding animals. 

Beet pulp is obtained in large quantities as a by-product at beet- 
sugar factories. The carefully-cleaned beets are cut into thin, "NT- 
shaped sections, and the sugar contained therein is extracted by the 
so-called diffusion process by treatment with warm water in a 
battery of especially-constructed diffusion cells. The juice thus 
obtained is purified with lime and sulfur dioxide and evaporated 
until the sugar begins to crystallize out. Molasses is obtained as 
a residue after the crystallizable sugar (sucrose) has been removed 
so far as possible. The extracted beet pulp, as it comes from the 
diffusion cells, contains 80 to over 90 per cent water and only a 
small amount of sugar (1 to 2 per cent). It is, however, relatively 
high in other carbohydrates, and has been found to have about the 
same feeding value as beets, per unit of dry matter contained in 
both. Its feeding value may be considered one-half that of corn 
silage. The Colorado station found that two tons of pulp are equiva- 
lent to one ton of roots in feeding value; this confirms the result 

1 Bulletin 199. 2 Bulletin 101. 3 Bulletin 80. 

4 Texas Bulletin 97; see also Massachusetts Bulletin 118. 
13 



194 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

of a trial at the Nebraska station showing beets to be practically 
of a similar value as corn silage for dairy cows. On account of its 
high water content, wet pulp cannot be shipped far from the sugar 
factories, and it must, therefore, either be fed at or near the factory 
as wet pulp or beet pulp silage (p. 161), or it is dried in an espe- 
cially-constructed large drier at the factory and placed on the market 
as dried beet pulp. Ten to fourteen tons of wet pulp will make one 
ton of dried pulp. 5 

The wet pulp is an excellent feed for dairy cows, sheep, and 
steers. As it is produced in large quantities and fed at the fac- 
tories, it is often fed too heavily for best results, sometimes without 
dry roughage or grain feed. Not more than about 100 pounds per 
1000 pounds body weight should be given daily. 

Siloed or cured pulp is made in large quantities near sugar 
factories and generally fed there. It may be fed in quantities 
similar to fresh pulp, and always with dry roughage, preferably 
alfalfa hay or other leguminous hay. In a feeding experiment 
conducted by the California station 1000-pound steers, each eat- 
ing 103.5 pounds cured pulp and 15 pounds of cut alfalfa hay, 
gained 2.4 pounds a day, on the average, for a period of 70 days, 
and steers, on a ration of 108 pounds cured pulp, 12.1 pounds rye 
grass hay, and 2 pounds ground horse beans, gained 2.5 pounds a 
day during the same period. Milch cows cannot be fed safely over 
one-half of this amount of siloed pulp without the quality of the 
milk suffering therefrom, both as to composition and as a food for 
infants; fed up to this limit and always with dry roughage and 
grain, it makes an excellent feed for dairy cows. 

Dried beet pulp is a valuable feed for dairy cows, steers, and 
sheep > and, to a limited extent, for other farm animals as well. 
It is a highly starchy feed, containing about 60 per cent nitrogen- 
free extract, 17.5 per cent fiber and 8 per cent protein; it con- 
tains 4.1 per cent digestible protein and 64.9 per cent carbohydrates 
(N. E., 1: 15.8). Dried pulp may be fed safely in large quantities 
to fattening steers, dairy cows, and sheep, and makes a very de- 
sirable feed when it can be obtained at a relatively low cost. It 
may be considered nearly equivalent in feeding value to wheat 
bran or oats, and of slightly lower value than corn, barley, and 
similar feeds. According to the feed-unit system, it takes 1.1 
pounds of either of the former feeds or 1 pound of the latter feeds 

5 New Jersey Bulletin 189. 'Unpublished results. 



SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 195 

to equal a feed unit (p. 79). Dried beet pulp is often moistened 
with three to five times its weight of water about six hours before 
feeding time, especially on dairy farms where there is no silo. Some 
dairymen and farmers prefer feeding the pulp in this way. In 
case of heavy producing cows or steers, it is possible that they are 
induced to eat their feed with a keener appetite and to eat more 
when the dried pulp is fed moistened than when fed dry, but no 
decided advantage has been shown by this method of feeding. 

Beet molasses is sometimes added to the pulp in the factory 
as it goes to the drier; the resulting molasses beet pulp makes an 
excellent feed for dairy cows and sheep, being worth somewhat 
more than the plain dried pulp. 7 It was found to have about one- 
tenth higher feeding value of corn for fattening lambs in experi- 
ments conducted at the Colorado station ; this is probably somewhat 
too high for an average figure. 

II. OIL MEALS 

The oil-bearing seeds that furnish by-products of value as stock 
feeds are: Flaxseed, cotton seed, coconut, soybean, and peanut, the 
last three to a limited extent only. 

Linseed Meal (Oil Meal). — Flaxseed (Fig. 37) is grown largely 
in the northwestern States, the Dakotas, and Minnesota, and the 
linseed oil mills are located in these and the central States. There 
are two methods of manufacture, known as (a) old-process and (b) 
new-process. By the former method the cleaned and ground seeds 
are placed in large linen bags and subjected to heavy pressure until 
the residue forms cakes about 1 inch thick and about 13 by 32 
inches (edges trimmed). The cakes are broken into small pieces 
or ground to a fine meal, usually the latter, which is generally sold 
as old-process linseed meal, or simply oil meal. 

In the new process of manufacture the flaxseed is ground and 
heated to about 160° F., and is then placed in large percolators 
holding about 1000 bushels or more. The seed is treated repeatedly 
with naphtha till practically all the oil is dissolved. Live steam 
is then introduced into the percolators and the naphtha gradually 
driven out of the mass. The meal is transferred to steam-heated 
driers, and, when dried, elevated to the meal bins and sacked. The 
naphtha is evaporated from the oil solution, and commercial lin- 
seed oil remains. 

7 Wisconsin Report 22, p. 108; see also Massachusetts Bulletin 99, 
Michigan Bulletin 220. 



196 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



Old-process meal is generally preferred by feeders on account of 
its forming a jelly with warm water, and because of its favorable 
influence on the health and appearance of farm animals. Owing 
to its relatively high oil content (6 to 8 per cent), it is somewhat 
more laxative than new-process meal, which contains only about 
3 per cent fat, and it gives a thrifty appearance to stock, producing a 
fine, shiny coat, soft to the touch, which is of special importance in 
the case of exhibition stock. The nutritive effect of the two kinds 
of meal may, in general, be considered nearly similar. The old- 
process meal has some advantage as a feed for fattening animals, 



c ~ 








<r 


i 


j 






iww^- 



Fig. 37. — Cross-section of flaxseed showing the different layers of cells: c, cuticle; g, 
mucilage cells; s, stone cells; pi, pigment cells; p, protoplasm and oil; a, aleurone (protein) 
grains; when soaked in water the mucilage cells swell and form the peculiar flaxseed jelly. 

for show stock, and in combination with dry feed or feeds of con- 
stipating tendencies ; when given with feeds of a laxative influence, 
such as green fodders, roots, and silage, or where a large supply 
of protein is important, as is often the case in feeding milch cows, 
the new-process meal may be preferred. 

The Swelling Test* — It is of interest to determine at times whether an 
oil meal is old- or new-process. The following simple test can be made at 
any farm by means of a tumbler and a teaspoon : Pulverize a small quantity 

8 Wisconsin Report, 1895, p. 64; "Examination of Oil Meals," by the 
author. 



SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 



197 



of the meal and place a level teaspoonful of it into a tumbler (Fig. 38) ; 
then add ten teaspoonfuls of boiling hot water to the meal ; stir thoroughly 
and leave to settle. If the meal is new-process it will settle in the course 
of an hour, and will leave about one-half of the water clear on top. Old- 
process meal will remain jelly-like. 





Fig. 38. — The swelling test. I, old-process oil meal; II, new-process oil meal. In case 
of the former, the meal stirred in water remains in suspension on standing, while the new- 
process meal soon settles so as to leave a clear yellowish solution on top, only about half the 
quantity of water added being absorbed. 

Composition of Linseed Meal. — The chemical analysis and 
digestibility of old- and new-process oil meal will be seen from the 
following table: 



Chemical Composition and Digestibility of Linseed Meals, in Per Cent 





Total components 


Digestible components 




Old-process 


New-process 


Old-process 


New-process 


Moisture 


9.8 

5.5 

33.9 

7.3 

35.7 

7.8 


9.0 

5.5 
37.5 

8.9 \ 
36.4 J 

2.9 


36!2 

32.0 

6.9 
1.6 




Ash 




Protein 


31.5 


Fiber 


35.7 

2.4 


Nitrogen-free extract 

Fat 


Nutritive ratio, 1 : 


1.3 







198 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

Linseed meal may be fed safely to all classes of farm animals; 
generally speaking, it is one of the most desirable stock feeds avail- 
able. Flaxseed contains a glucoside, linamarin, which, with fer- 
ments, may yield prussic acid; but it is, as a rule, present in only 
minute quantities, and but few cases of ill effects from its use as a 
stock feed are on record. The cost of the more starchy factory by- 
products makes them, in general, relatively cheaper sources of pro- 
tein than oil meal, but the latter may be fed to advantage in smaller 
quantities even under these conditions, on account of the medicinal 
properties as a regulator of the system, and for its stimulating 
effects on the appetite of the animals and their general feeling of 
well-being. 

The quantities to be fed daily will depend on the relative cost 
of oil meal and other concentrates. If the market prices of the 
latter feeds are such as to admit of economical feeding of large 
quantities of oil meal, the following amounts may be fed per head 
daily without injurious effects: Horses, 1 pound; milch cows and 
fattening steers, 3 pounds; fattening sheep and hogs, 1 pound, the 
quantities fed being increased toward the end of the fattening 
period ; calves and lambs, % pound or less. "Where the production of 
high-grade butter is the object sought, not more than one pound 
of oil meal should be fed, since the quality of the butter is apt to 
suffer when larger quantities are fed, especially if given with corn 
or other feeds having a similar softening effect on the butter. 
Calves are generally fed boiled flaxseed rather than oil meal, espe- 
cially until they are about two months old, unless the price of the 
seed is almost prohibitive, as sometimes happens. Oil meal may 
advantageously be fed to swine as a slop, a pailful of meal being 
stirred into a barrel of skim milk and left over night; the mixture 
will form a thick, almost solid mass in the morning, which will be 
greatly relished by swine. Fed to poultry in small quantities, a 
tablespoonful to each hen a few times per week, it will brighten the 
plumage, invigorate the system, and promote laying. 

Cotton-seed meal is the ground residue obtained in the manu- 
facture of cotton-seed oil ; the oil is expressed by pressure as in old- 
process linseed meal. The cake is generally ground into a fine 
meal for the trade in the eastern and central States, while for the 
western States and Europe it is broken into pieces of about nut or 
pea size, which are readily eaten by cattle; for sheep the cake is, 
as a rule, coarsely pulverized. There are two kinds of cotton-seed 
meal on the market, viz., decorticated, made from seed the hulls of 
which are largely removed before the extraction of the oil, and the 



SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 



199 



imdecorticated, so-called cold-pressed cotton-seed cake ; this is the 
product obtained when the whole uncrushed seed is subjected to the 
cold-pressure process for the extraction of oil. The difference in the 
value of the two kinds of meal is readily seen from the following 
average analyses: 

Composition of Cottonseed Meal and Cold-pressed Cotton-seed Cake, in Per Cent 





Cotton-seed 
meal 


Cold-pressed 

cotton-seed 

cake 


Moisture 

Ash 


7.0 

6.6 

45.3 

6.3 

24.6 

10.2 


7.6 

4.9 

24.2 

21.1 

32.5 

9.7 

100.0 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen-free extract .... 
Fat 




100.0 



Eecent analyses of cotton-seed meal appear to run considerably 
lower in protein than given above, viz., about 42 or 41 per cent, 
with fat likewise lower (about 8 per cent), and fiber higher (10 per 
cent). The trade recognizes three grades of cotton-seed meal: 
Choice, prime, and good. The former " must be finely ground, not 
necessarily bolted, perfectly sound and sweet in odor, yellow, free 
from excess of lint, and must contain at least 41 per cent protein." 
The protein limits for prime and good cotton-seed meal are 38.6 
per cent and 36 per cent, respectively. The analyses given above 
indicate the difference in the value of the decorticated and cold- 
pressed cotton-seed cake. The high fiber content of the latter feed 
is important, and the result is shown by the lower digestibility of 
this feed compared with cotton-seed meal. 9 

Average Per Cent Digestibility of Decorticated and Cold-pressed Cottonseed Cake 





Protein 


Fat 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Decorticated cotton-seed meal 
Cold-pressed cotton-seed cake . 


86 
74 


93 
90 


77 
55 



It is evident, from the differences in the protein and fiber con- 
tents of the two feeds, that cotton-seed meal is a much more valu- 
able seed than cold-pressed cake, although the latter ordinarily 

Pott, " Handb. tier. Emiihrung," Hi, 2, p. 102. 



200 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

sells for only a few dollars per ton below cotton-seed meal; hence 
the wisdom of buying only the best grades of cotton-seed meal. This 
applies also to so-called cotton-seed feed which has been placed on 
the market during late years. This is " a mixture of cotton-seed 
meal and cotton-seed hulls (1:5), containing less than 36 per 
cent protein" (definition); as a matter of fact, it contains only 
10 per cent protein, 3.4 per cent fat, and 33.1 per cent fiber. 10 

Test for Impurities. — The Vermont station has published the 
following simple test for impurities in cotton-seed meal i 11 

Place a teaspoonful of the meal in a tumbler and pour over it an 
ounce and a half to two ounces of water. Stir the mass until it is thoroughly 
wet up and all the particles are floating. Allow it to subside for from five 
to ten seconds and pour off. If a large amount of fine dark brown sediment 
has settled in this time, a sediment noticeably heavier than the fine mustard- 
yellow meal, one which upon repeated treatments with boiling hot water 
keeps settling out, the goods are a feed meal, i.e., meal containing relatively 
large quantities of ground hulls. If, however, there is found a larger amount 
of this residue, one which persists in remaining after several washings, it is 
surely composed of hulls, and it is a feed meal or an adulterated cotton-seed 
meal. The results are striking when the same sample is compared with a 
pure cotton-seed meal. 

Uses of Cotton-seed meal. — Cotton-seed meal is a very valu- 
able feed when rightly used. In most sections of the country it is 
our highest protein feed and the cheapest source of protein for 
stock feeding. It is an excellent feed for milch cows, and may be 
fed in large quantities (six pounds per head daily) apparently for 
any length of time; ordinarily only one to two pounds per head 
are fed daily, however, with other concentrates, and this is, in 
general, the better practice, since heavy feeding of cotton-seed meal 
gives the butter a hard, tallowy texture, raises the melting-point 
of the butter fat, and decreases the percentage of volatile fatty 
acids (p. 23), — in short, produces a low-grade butter. 12 

Fattening steers may also receive similar heavy feeds of cotton- 
seed meal as milch cows, if desired, but only for a period not to 
exceed 90 days ; if fed cotton-seed meal longer and in larger quanti- 
ties, sickness and death are likely to occur, owing to the presence of 
poisonous principles in the meal, very likely choline, an amide; 
an alkaloid has also been identified in cotton-seed meal, which may 
be the cause of the poisoning effect of the meal on certain animals. 
Cotton-seed meal cannot safely be fed to calves or pigs for the 

10 Pennsylvania Bulletin 28. 

11 Bulletin 101, Texas Bulletin 109; Experiment Station Record 20, 
p. 510. 

"Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Science, 1889, p. 84. 



SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 201 

same reason. Eecent investigations at the North Carolina Station 
appear to show that the danger in feeding cotton-seed meal to pigs 
can be overcome by giving them in their drinking water for every 
pound of cotton-seed meal eaten, for each 100-pound pig, one gal- 
lon of a solution of iron sulfate (made by dissolving 1 pound in 
50 gallons of drinking water). 13 If further work shows that cotton- 
seed meal can be safely fed to pigs by this method, it will prove of 
great importance to American agriculture, as it will tend to do 
away with enormous losses of pigs that occur each year through the 
feeding of cotton-seed meal either to pigs direct or to steers fol- 
lowed by pigs. 

Cotton-seed hulls are also fed to cattle in the South, being 
used as a roughage and a cheap substitute for hay. They are dry, 
hard and usually covered with a fuzzy lint. The average composi- 
tion of cotton-seed bulls is as follows : 

Moisture 11.3 per cent 

Ash 2.7 per cent 

Protein 4.2 per cent 

Fiber 45.3 per cent 

Nitrogen- free extract . . 34.1 per cent 

Fat 2.2 per cent 

100.0 

Ten per cent of the protein has been found digestible; 38 per 
cent of the fiber, 40 per cent of the nitrogen-free extract, and 77 
per cent of the fat, making the amounts of digestible feed con- 
stituents found therein: 

Protein .42 per cent 

Carbohydrates and fat 34.77 per cent 

The hulls are used as a fuel at the oil mills and, as stated, for 
stock feeding, either clear or mixed with concentrates, like cotton- 
seed meal, wheat bran, cracked corn, etc. In the South cotton-seed 
meal and cotton-seed hulls are often fed as the entire ration for 
fattening steers, milch cows, and other stock. 14 

Immense numbers of steers are fattened in the South on these 
feeds only, generally mixed in the proportions of four parts of 
hulls and one of meal. The fattening is continued from 90 to 120 
days. Sheep and dairy cows are also fed mixed cotton-seed meal 
and hulls with good results. "All the information at hand indi- 

13 North Carolina Circular 5. 

14 Farmers' Bulletin 3G, pp. 14-15: " Directions for Feeding Cotton- 
seed Meal and Hulls to Farm Animals." 



202 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

cates that this practice is both economical and profitable. The diet 
apparently does not injure the health of the animals, nor impair 
the healthfulness of the resulting products." 15 

Coconut meal is used as a stock feed in this country very little 
except on the Pacific coast. It is relatively low in protein, fat, and 
fiber, its composition being about as follows : 20 per cent protein, 
6 to 8 per cent fat, 9 to 10 per cent fiber, and 6 per cent ash. 

According to digestion experiments conducted at the Massa- 
chusetts station, 16 the protein is 90 per cent digestible, the fat 
wholly digestible, and the nitrogen-free extract 87 per cent digesti- 
ble. As the price of coconut meal is generally but slightly higher 
than wheat bran, it is, as a rule, a more economical concentrate 
than this feed, especially for dairy cows, but it cannot be fed in as 
large amounts as wheat bran, nor can it be kept more than a few 
weeks in warm weather on account of its tendency to turn rancid. 

Fresh coconut meal has a pleasant, aromatic flavor and is 
greatly relished by cattle and other stock; two to three pounds 
daily is a fair allowance for cattle. It should be fed mixed with 
other concentrates. 

Soybean meal is the ground residue obtained in the manu- 
facture of soybean oil. The meal fed in this country is imported 
from either Japan, China, or Manchuria ; so far as is known, none 
is manufactured here, although soybeans are now grown quite exten- 
sively in various sections of the United States. It is a valuable 
concentrate for farm stock, and is one of the richest nitrogenous 
feeds on the market, containing about as much protein and fat as 
cotton-seed meal (41.4 per cent and 7.2 per cent, respectively) ; 
it has a lower fiber content (5.3 per cent) and a higher digestibility 
than this meal. According to Kellner, only 3.4 per cent of the 
protein is present in amide form, and the protein has a digesti- 
bility of 97.7 per cent. The soybean meal is, therefore, a highly 
digestible feed, well adapted for feeding young stock, dairy cows, 
steers, and other farm animals. It is fed in this country almost 
entirely on the Pacific coast, where it is used largely for poultry 
feeding. It makes a good substitute for linseed meal, pound for 
pound, for dairy cows, and is one of the most promising concen- 
trates available for stock feeding; the only objection to its use, so 
far as is known, is its cost, which is, as a rule, considerably above 
that of linseed meal or cotton-seed meal. 

15 hoc. cit. 10 Bulletin 152. 



SUGAR FACTORY FEEDS AND OIL MEALS 203 

Peanut Meal. — This residue is obtained in the manufacture of 
peanut oil. It is rarely fed in this country, but it is one of the 
common oil meals used by European dairy farmers. The meal on 
the market is manufactured either from hulled or whole peanuts, 
the former being the more valuable. It is one of our most con- 
centrated and digestible nitrogenous feeds, containing, on the aver- 
age, nearly 50 per cent protein, 7.3 per cent fat, 5.0 per cent fiber, 
24.5 per cent nitrogen-free extract, and 5.2 per cent ash. The pro- 
tein substances and the nitrogen-free extract are 90 per cent di- 
gestible, and the fat 89 per cent digestible. It is, therefore, a con- 
siderably richer feed than either cotton-seed meal or soybean meal, 
and, like these, is well worthy of a trial or a more extended use by 
our dairy and stock farmers. In Europe peanut meal is fed espe- 
cially to dairy cows, which receive two or three pounds thereof 
daily per head, generally mixed with other kinds of oil meal and 
grain. It is also often fed as sole concentrate, however; a common 
ration for dairy cows in southern Germany and Switzerland is 
composed of about 20 pounds meadow hay and two to four pounds 
peanut meal, according to the production of the cows. It is also 
a good feed for fattening steers, and is fed to horses as a partial 
substitute for oats, viz., in place of 13.2 pounds (6 kilos) of oats, 
8.8 pounds oats and 2.2 pounds peanut meal, and in place of 11 
pounds of oats, 6.6 pounds oats and 3.3 pounds peanut meal. This 
oil meal is also used with good results in feeding young stock, espe- 
cially foals. On account of its high fat and protein contents, it 
has a rather poor keeping quality; it is sometimes adulterated with 
residues from other oil-bearing seeds or with peanut hulls, and 
should, therefore, be bought on analysis. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Describe the by-products obtained in the manufacture of (a) cane-sugar, 

( b ) beet-sugar ; and give the main uses to which these are put in feeding 
farm animals. 

2. YVhat are the general methods of manufacturing oil meals? 

3. Give the main oil meals used for feeding farm animals in this country, 

and their characteristic properties. 

4. Give the swelling test for determining when an oil meal is old- or new- 

process. 

5. Give a simple test for purity of cotton-seed meal. 

6. Are cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed hulls used as sole feeds for farm 

animals; if so, under what conditions and for what purposes? 



CHAPTER XIX 
ANIMAL FEEDS 

I. PACKING-HOUSE FEEDS 

The packing-house products used for feeding livestock are 
dried blood, tankage, meat scraps or meat meal, and bone meal. 
These feeds are especially valuable for feeding pigs, poultry, and 
other animals that require a considerable supply of nitrogenous and 
mineral components in their feed, and do not object to the animal 
odor of these feeds. The packing-house products are high-protein 
feeds, and those containing much bone, like meat scraps and tank- 
age, are rich in mineral matter, especially phosphoric acid and lime. 

Dried blood or blood meal contains over 80 per cent of protein, 
sometimes as high as 86 per cent, of which about nine-tenths is 
digestible, and the small amount of fat present therein has been 
found wholly digestible. Blood meal (blood flour) is used to some 
extent in feeding calves, being given in the skim milk, about a tea- 
spoonful per feed. This is considered an excellent source of protein 
for calves, and is also of value on account of its tonic effect. Other 
young stock may receive about one-fourth pound per day per 100 
pounds, and older animals one to two pounds per head daily. The 
price of the blood meal stands in the way for its more general use 
for older animals, however. It must also be fed mixed with other 
concentrates to such animals, as stock object to the animal odor of 
both blood and meat products. Digester tankage, meat meal, beef 
scraps, and similar feeds vary considerably in composition, accord- 
ing to their origin and the amount of bone which they contain. 
They should always be bought on definite guarantees of protein 
and fat contents. 

Tankage makes a valuable swine and poultry feed. It is made 
from fresh meat scraps, fat trimmings, and scrap bones. These 
are thoroughly cooked in large steel tanks under live steam pressure, 
by which method the tallow is separated. The steam is then turned 
off, and, when the mass has settled, the tallow is drawn off. The 
residue is kept agitated and dried till it contains about 8 per cent 
water, and the tankage is then taken out, allowed to cool, ground, 
and is ready for shipment. Tankage is generally sold under a 
guarantee of 60 per cent protein and 6 per cent fat, while meat 
204 



ANIMAL FEEDS 205 

meal or beef scraps contain 40 to 50 per cent protein, 8 per cent or 
more of fat, and about 25 per cent ash, largely phosphate of" lime 
(bone). 

An important use of meat meal and similar feeds is in poultry 
feeding. Experiments at Geneva (N. Y.) and other stations have 
established the superior value of animal proteins in feeding poultry, 
especially ducks. It is likely that this value depends, to a large 
extent, on the mineral matter supplied in these feeds, and not 
especially on the protein which they contain ; better results are 
generally obtained, however, by feeding both classes of nutrients 
combined in the same feeding stuff rather than separately, as, e.g., 
grain feeds with ashes or bone meal. 

Fish meal, or fish meat meal, contains amounts of protein, fat, 
and mineral matter similar to good grades of meat meal, and may 
be considered of about equal value to this feed, pound for pound, 
for feeding poultry or swine, when manufactured from fresh fish 
refuse by modern sanitary methods. Besides being a valuable 
poultry feed, fish meal may be fed to horse and cattle in a limited 
way where an extra supply of protein in the rations seems desirable. 
In northern Europe it is occasionally fed to dairy cows in amounts 
of one to two pounds per head daily, mixed with other concentrates, 
and is considered an economical feed, well adapted for this purpose, 
although the cows at first object to its peculiar odor. 

Bone meal or ground bone is likewise used for feeding poultry, 
and, in a small way, with Indian corn for pigs, in order to correct 
the lack of ash materials in this cereal (p. 341). One-half ounce 
ground phosphate rock (floats) may be given daily to calves or 
pigs for the same purpose. 1 

II. DAIRY FEEDS 

The dairy products form a most important group of feeds for 
livestock. Owing to the value of whole cows' milk as a human food, 
and as the raw material for the manufacture of cream, butter, 
cheese, etc., it is only used for stock feeding in the case of beef 
animals, and for dairy and breeding animals during the early life 
of the calves. It is, therefore, not necessary to describe in this 
place the chemical or physical properties of all milk, beyond a few 
observations as to its value for young stock. 

Colostrum Milk. — Immediately after calving a thick, viscous 
liquid, known as colostrum, is secreted by the cow; in the course 

1 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 1. 



206 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



of two or three days this gradually changes to normal milk. The 
colostrum differs from milk in its high content of solids, albumen, 
and ash, while the percentages of fat and sugar which it contains 
are somewhat lower than those of normal milk. Owing to the 
high albumen content, colostrum will thicken (coagulate) on heat- 
ing. The average chemical composition of colostrum and normal 
cows' milk and milk of other farm animals will be seen from the 
following table : 

Average Composition of Milk, in Per Cent (Konig) 





Water 


Fat 


Casein 


Albumen 


Milk- 
sugar 


Ash 


Cows' colostrum .... 
Cows' milk (normal) 

Mares' milk 

Ewes' milk 

Goats' milk 

Sows' milk 


74.6 

87.3 

90.8 

80.8 
85.7 
82.5 


3.6 
3.7 

1.2 
6.9 
4.8 

5.8 


4.0 13.6 
2.9 .5 

2.0 
6.5 
4.3 
6.3 


2.7 
4.9 

5.7 
4.9 
4.4 
4.4 


1.6 

.7 

.3 

.9 

.8 

1.0 



The colostrum of the other milk-producing animals is corre- 
spondingly high in albumen and ash compared with that of milch 
cows. Whole milk is the first feed of young animals, and is a com- 
plete feed, containing all the elements necessary for the sustenance 
and growth of the young. On account of the relatively large fat 
globules in milk rich in butter fat, this is not, however, adapted for 
feeding young pigs and lambs; digestive disturbances are likely to 
occur when such milk is fed, 2 and animals do not make as satisfac- 
tory gain on such milk as on whole milk lower in fat or on skim milk. 
A similar harmful effect of an excess of fat in the milk has been 
frequently observed in feeding infants. 

Calves are fed the dam's milk for only a day or two after freshen- 
ing in ordinary farm practice, except in the case of beef, exhibition, 
or breeding stock, which often receive whole milk for several 
months, when they are fed skim milk, with ground flaxseed, ground 
grain, or mill feeds until they can eat and digest hay and concen- 
trates (p. 221). 

In the feed-unit system three pounds of whole milk are given 
an equivalent value to one feed unit (one pound of grain). We 
may assume that it will require six pounds of whole milk, on the 
average, for a pound of gain with young calves, or one-half the 
amount of skim milk required. 

a Storrs (Conn.) Bulletin 31. 



ANIMAL FEEDS 207 

Skim milk is used extensively for feeding calves and pigs, and, 
properly " reinforced," makes an excellent substitute for whole 
milk in feeding these animals. It is also often fed to poultry. It 
is now, as a rule, obtained by the centrifugal method, which fur- 
nishes a by-product containing, on the average, 9.5 per cent solids, 
composed of about 0.10 to 0.15 per cent fat, 5 per cent sugar, 3.5 
per cent casein and albumen, and 0.9 per cent ash. It is, therefore, 
essentially a protein feed, with a nutritive ratio of 1:2; hence is 
preferably supplemented in feeding animals with starchy or medium- 
protein feeds, like cereals, wheat middlings or shorts, etc. Creamer- 
ies furnish their patrons enormous quantities of skim milk in the 
aggregate, viz., as a rule, 80 per cent of the milk delivered. The 
whole milk is also run through a separator on many dairy farms 
where cream is shipped or delivered to the creamery; the skim 
milk thus obtained is warm and in the best possible condition for 
feeding young stock. 

The value of separator skim milk for feeding purposes is vari- 
ously estimated at 15 to 25 cents per hundred pounds; according 
to the feed-unit system, six pounds of skim milk are of the same 
value as one pound of grain ; at one cent a pound for this ($20 per 
ton), 100 pounds of skim milk would, therefore, be worth 16 cents, 
and at 1^ cents for grain it would be worth 25 cents per hundred. 

Experiments conducted at the Wisconsin station showed that 
the best results in feeding skim milk and corn meal to pigs will 
be reached by feeding these in the ratio of 3 to 1. Assuming that 
five pounds of corn meal fed alone would produce a pound of gain, 
the value of 100 pounds of skim milk would be 31 cents, with corn 
at $20 per ton ; 46 cents with corn at $30 per ton. The rule given 
by Gurler as to the value of the skim milk is that 100 pounds when 
fed with corn to fattening pigs are worth one-half the market price 
of a bushel of corn (56 pounds). 

Unless fed perfectly sweet and under sanitary conditions, skim 
milk will be likely to cause scouring in calves; pasteurized skim 
milk is less apt to give trouble in this respect, and it is important, 
therefore, that creameries adopt the method of pasteurizing the 
skim milk before it is returned to the patrons. This will also 
improve the keeping quality of the milk and will serve the still 
more important object of removing the danger of spreading tubercu- 
losis through the skim milk, as the tubercle bacillus is readily 
killed on heating to pasteurizing temperatures of 160° F. or over 
(Fig. 39). 



208 



DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 



Buttermilk is the by-product obtained in the manufacture of 
butter. It is used especially as a feed for growing and fattening 
pigs. It contains, on the average, somewhat less than 10 per cent 
solids, viz., 0.5 per cent fat, 4 per cent casein and albumen, 4.4 per 
cent milk-sugar, and 0.7 per cent ash. It does not, therefore, differ 
materially from skim milk in composition, and extensive com- 
parative feeding experiments conducted by the Copenhagen station 
and elsewhere have shown that buttermilk is very nearly of the 
same value as skim milk for feeding pigs. It can also be fed to 
calves with good results, if special care is taken to feed it in fresh 
condition and in small amounts at the start, so as to gradually 




Fig. 39. — Holstein skim-milk calves — promising stock for the dairy herd. 

accustom the stomach of the young animals to it. Unless it can 
be fed in the manner suggested and with the most scrupulous 
cleanliness, the attempt had better not be made to feed buttermilk 
to calves, as disastrous results are likely to follow in such cases. 

Whey is obtained as a by-product at cheese factories, and is 
supplied to patrons in large quantities. It contains only about 
6.6 per cent solids, viz., 0.3 per cent fat, 0.85 per cent albumen 
(with a little casein in suspension), 4.8 per cent milk-sugar, and 
0.65 per cent ash. Whey is a more dilute and more carbonaceous 
feed than either skim milk or buttermilk (nutritive ratio, 1:9, 
against about 1 : 1.5 for skim milk and buttermilk) ; hence it may 
be better supplemented by protein feeds than these, like wheat 
bran, small grains, and oil meal. Whey is fed to pigs almost en- 



ANIMAL FEEDS 209 

tirely; its value for this purpose has been found to be about one- 
half of that of skim milk or buttermilk. This would make 12 
pounds of whey equal to one pound of grain feed in feeding value. 
It has also occasionally been used as a calf feed, but the preceding 
remarks as to feeding buttermilk to calves apply with still greater 
force to whey. It must be fed fresh and sweet, if used for this 
purpose, and with the utmost care as to the various factors that 
make for successful calf feeding (p. 220). 

QUESTIONS 

1. What packing-house feeds are used for feeding farm animals? Give the 

characteristic properties and uses of each. 

2. What is colostrum milk? 

3. Name the dairy hy-products used for feeding farm animals. 

4. What are the characteristics of each? Name their uses. 

5. What is the average composition of (a) cows' milk, (b) mares', ewes', 

goats', and sows' milk? In the case of the latter kinds, give fat contents 
only. 
G. What is the relative feeding value of whole milk, skim milk, huttermilk, 
and whey for feeding calves or pigs? 



14 



CHAPTER XX 
MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS 

I. Proprietary Feeds. — A large number of different kinds of 
mixed feeds, mostly proprietary feeds, are on the market and are 
sold for feeding different classes of farm animals. The names 
under which they are sold often indicate the purpose for which 
they are intended, like dairy feeds, horse, calf, swine feeds, etc. 
Some of these feeds possess considerable merit and may be bought 
at prices that render them economical in comparison with standard 
stock feeds; others may likewise have merit, but are sold at ex- 
cessive prices, and others, again, are neither desirable nor economi- 
cal feeds and may safely be left alone. Unfortunately, the majority 
of the proprietary feeds belong to the last class. The farmer should 
aim to be relatively independent of feed manufacturers by raising 
his own feed so far as practicable, and to supplement these through 
the purchase of standard feeds of the kind required for the special 
feeding operations in which he is engaged. The mixed feeds on 
the market, as a rule, are bought by farmers who are either so 
situated that they cannot raise much of their own feed or who have 
not posted themselves sufficiently on the subject of feeding stuffs 
to know that these mixed feeds do not necessarily possess any merit 
above that of ordinary well-known feeding stuffs, and that state- 
ments on the advertising circulars of feed manufacturers must often 
be considerably discounted. 

There are, however, as suggested, many proprietary feeds on the 
market which may be purchased at reasonable prices and under 
definite guarantees of minimum contents of protein and fat, and 
maximum fiber contents, which are, moreover, made by reliable 
manufacturers who value their business reputation and furnish 
feeds of at least the value suggested by the guarantees. Where 
such feeds can be bought at fair prices and fit into the system of 
feeding practised by the farmer, there is no reason for not giving 
them a trial. Among these feeds are a number of alfalfa molasses 
feeds, the brewery molasses feeds, mixed grain or mill feeds, 
etc.; also some of the calf meals (if not too high priced) and 
poultry feeds. 

II. Feeds of Minor Importance. — Besides the feeding stuffs 
mentioned in the preceding, a large number of materials find a 

210 



MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS 211 

limited use for feeding farm animals in different parts of the 
world; a few of these will be briefly considered in the following. 

Leaves and twigs of brush and trees are a favorite feed for 
goats, and also used for feeding cattle and sheep in the northern 
part of the Scandinavian countries and Finland, being harvested 
and tied in bundles in the summer and fed during the winter 
months as a partial substitute for hay, which often cannot be ob- 
tained in sufficient quantities to carry the animals through the 
season. Birch, ash, and linden are commonly harvested for this 
purpose. The dried leaves and small twigs of these trees, fed in 
a limited amount, make a fair feed for the animals mentioned, as 
well as for goats, and have about similar nutritive value as the 
lower grades of hay or straw. Brush feed has been recommended as 
a carrier for molasses in feeding farm stock, and is used for this 
purpose to a limited extent. 1 It consists of leaves, twigs, and small 
stems of underbrush, which are run through a cutter and crusher, 
and molasses is afterwards mixed with the material. Enthusiastic 
reports of such molasses feeds are on record, but their feeding 
value has not yet been determined by means of carefully-conducted 
experiments. 

Acorns and beechnuts are used as a swine feed on the Continent 
in Europe, and in a small way in this country in the South and in 
California, the animals being driven to the woods in the fall and 
fattened upon the nuts that they pick up from the ground. Ac- 
cording to the Tuskegee, Alabama, station, 2 acorns and kitchen 
slop make a good feed for swine, about five pounds of acorns being 
fed per head daily. The tendency of beechnuts to make a soft 
pork of inferior quality may be overcome by feeding peas or horse 
beans for a few weeks prior to slaughtering time. The effect of 
acorns on the quality of the pork appears to be in the opposite 
direction, although the evidence on this point is somewhat conflict- 
ing. 3 Both these nut and brush feeds contain considerable quantities 
of tannin which renders them bitter and less palatable to stock 
than ordinary feeding stuffs. 

Icelandic moss is another material that is sometimes used for 
feeding cattle in extreme northern countries. It may be inferred 
that this possesses considerable feeding value from the fact that it 
forms the main and often sole feed of the reindeer in these northern 
regions. Its digestibility and nutritive effects have been studied 
< 1 

1 Wisconsin Circular 30, p. 94. 

bulletin 93. 

3 Pott, " Futtermittellehre," Li, 1, p. 569. 



212 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

by Isaachsen, of the Agricultural College of Norway. 4 It is essen- 
tially a starchy feed, containing about 50 per cent nitrogen-free 
extract, 42 per cent fiber, and only 3 per cent protein. 

III. Condimental Stock Feeds. — Condimental stock feeds, 
stock tonics, etc., are sold everywhere and in large quantities in 
the aggregate. In so far as these materials claim to be feeds and 
to possess actual nutritive properties, they can be dismissed at once, 
as they are not fed in sufficient quantities to be of any importance 
whatever as feeds, and are, furthermore, too expensive to be used 
for this purpose. As regards their value as tonics and medicine, 
on the other hand, the examinations made of the materials have 
shown that they do not contain sufficient amounts of substances 
possessing medicinal properties to have any influence on stock one 
way or the other. A large bulk (one-half or more) of the stock 
feeds are made up of some common feeding stuffs, like mill feeds, 
corn meal, oil meal, ground screenings, etc., and the balance gen- 
erally consists of salt, charcoal, or sulfur, with a small amount of 
mild drugs or condiments, like gentian, fenugreek, sassafras, ginger, 
pepper, etc. The doses of these condiments which an animal re- 
ceives in an ounce or two of the stock feed, fed as directed, are too 
small to have any medicinal effect whatever, as they make only a 
small fraction of the dose recognized by veterinary science, on 
account of the small proportions in which they are present in the 
stock feeds. 

The preceding remarks are largely based on theoretical con- 
siderations, which, however weighty they are, may not settle the 
matter in the minds of many people. The stock feeds have, however, 
been tried out at more than a dozen different experiment stations, 
and the results obtained in the trials arc given in the publications 
of these stations and may be studied by all interested. The author 
made an investigation of the main stock feeds on the American 
market several years ago and compiled the results obtained on all 
experiments that were conducted with them up to that time in 
this and foreign countries. In these experiments 992 farm animals 
were included in all, viz., 78 steers, 81 dairy cows, 604 sheep, 112 
pigs, and 117 hens. Out of the 23 different trials compiled, only two 
showed the stock feed to possess any merit, and the interpretation 
of the results of the two exceptions is open to question. The evi- 
dence is, therefore, practically unanimous against the use of con- 
dimental stock feeds, and goes to show that, when fed under condi- 

4 Ber. Norges Landbrukshojsk, 1905-6, p. 202; Tidsskr. norske Landbr., 
1910, No. 10. 



MISCELLANEOUS FEEDS 213 

tions similar to those that prevailed in these experiments, the addi- 
tion of a stock feed to the ration is a positive disadvantage, both 
with reference to the production of the animals and the relative 
cost of the production. 

Home-made Stock Tonics. — If a farmer considers it necessary 
to use stock feeds for animals in poor condition of health, off feed, 
or ailing in one way or another, that is not plainly a case for a 
veterinarian to attend to, it would seem that the better plan would 
be to buy the separate ingredients at a drug store and mix them in 
the proportions indicated below. He will save money thereby and 
will have the satisfaction of knowing just what he is feeding his 
stock and of feeding it in a much more concentrated form than in 
the case of commercial preparations. The following three mixtures 
of drugs, etc., have been suggested by the Vermont station 5 and the 
Iowa station (Formula 3) : G 

Formula 1. — Ground gentian, one pound; ground ginger, y 4 pound; 
powdered saltpeter, y 4 pound ; powdered iron sulfate, y 4 pound. Mix and 
give one tablespoonful in feed once daily for ten days, omit for three days, 
and feed as above for ten days more. 

Formula 2. — Fenugreek, y 2 pound; ginger, y, pound; powdered gentian, 
y 2 pound; powdered sulfur, y g pound; potassium nitrate, y, pound; resin, y z 
pound; cayenne pepper, y 4 pound; ground flaxseed meal. .*? pounds; powdered 
charcoal, ly, pounds; common salt, ly> pounds; wheat bran, G pounds. 

Formula 3. — Powdered gentian, 1 pound ; powdered ginger, 1 pound ; 
fenugreek, 5 pounds; common salt, 10 pounds; bran, 50 pounds; oil meal, 
50 pounds. 

Summary. 7 — The evidence at hand with regard to condimental 
stock feeds shows that there is practical unanimity of opinion 
among scientific men who have given the subject special study, in 
regard to several points connected with these so-called feeds or 
tonics. 

1. They are of no benefit to healthy animals when fed as 
directed, either as to increasing the digestibility of the feed eaten 
or rendering it more effective for the production of meat, milk, 
wool, etc. 

2. They are of no benefit as a cure-all for diseases of the various 
classes of live stock; neither do they possess any particular merit in 
case of specific diseases, or for animals out of condition, off feed, 
etc., since only a small proportion of ingredients having medicinal 

Bulletin 104. 

Bulletin 87. 

7 Condensed from Wisconsin Bulletin 151. "Condimental Stock Feeds," 
by the author (May, 1907, 40 pp.). Bibliography on stock feeds up to 1007 
is given in this bulletin. 



214 DESCRIPTION OF FEEDING STUFFS 

value is found therein, the hulk of the feeds consisting of a filler 
which possesses no medicinal properties whatever. 

3. Exorbitant prices are charged for these feeds, as is natural, 
considering the extensive advertising the manufacturers are doing 
and the liberal commissions which they pay agents and dealers. 
The large sales of stock feeds are doubtless mainly to be attributed 
to these facts. 

-i. By adopting a liberal system of feeding farm animals and 
furnishing, a variety of feeds, good results may be obtained without 
resorting to stock feeds of any kind. If a farmer considers it neces- 
sary to give stock feeds at times, he can purchase the ingredients 
at a drug store and make his own at a fraction of the cost charged 
for them by the manufacturers. 

The preceding conclusions may be said to give the case against 
the condimental stock feeds. It is only fair to state, as the other 
side of the case, that the suggestions for better care and feeding of 
stock which have come from the advertising matter issued by stock 
feed manufacturers, or from their agents, have doubtless been of 
value to many farmers and have been productive of results. As 
many people are not disposed to heed advice that is given without 
cost, it may be that indirectly the money spent for condimental 
stock feeds has not in some cases been wholly wasted. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a proprietary feed, and to what extent is it wise to use such a 

feed? 

2. Name three miscellaneous feeds of minor importance for feeding stock. 

3. State how and for what class of farm animals each is used. 

4. What is a condimental stock feed? 

5. State the main conclusions to which experiments with these materials 

have led. 
G. Is it necessary to feed condimental stock feeds to farm animals? If not, 
what would you use in their place? 



PART III 

PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



CHAPTER XXI 
CALF FEEDING 

Feeding Standards for Calves. — The following tables give the 
feed requirements for growing cattle, according to the standards 
of Wolff-Lchmann and of Armsby: 

/. Wolff-Lehmann Standards for Growing Cattle — 1000 pounds live weight 



For dairy breeds . 



For beef breeds . 



Age, 
months 



2-3 
3-6 
6-12 

2-3 
3-6 
6-12 



Live 
weight, 
pounds 



150 
300 
500 

165 
330 
550 





Digestible 


Dry 










Carbohv- 




Protein 


drates 
and fat* 


23 


4.0 


17.5 


24 


3.0 


15.1 


27 


2.0 


13.6 


23 


4.2 


17.5 


24 


3.5 


16.2 


25 


2.5 


14.8 



N. R. 



1:4.5 
1:5.1 
1:6.8 

1:4.2 
1:4.7 
1:6.0 



* Given separately by Wolff-Lehmann. 

77. Armsby Standards Per Day and Head 



Age, 
months 


Live 
weight, 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 


Energy 
value, 
therms 


3 

6 

12 


275 
425 
650 


1.10 
1.30 
1.65 


5.0 
6.0 
7.0 



Birth Weights and Gains made by Calves. — New-born calves 
weigh from 40 to over 100 pounds each, according to the size of the 
parents. Beach gives the average birth weight of calves of the dairy 
breeds as follows: 1 Ayrshire, 77 pounds; Guernsey, 79 pounds; 
llolstein, 107 pounds; Jersey, 67 pounds. These weights were 7 to 



v Connecticut (Storrs) lleport, 11)07. 



215 



216 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



9 per cent of the average weights of their respective dams, which 
were all mature cows. According to Eckles, the average birth 
weights of calves in the University of Missouri dairy herd were : 
Ayrshire, 64 pounds; Holstein, 89 pounds; Jersey, 53 pounds, and 
Dairy Shorthorn, 76 pounds, these weights being 6 to 8 per cent 
of the weight of the dam. 2 The records show that bull calves average 
about ten pounds heavier than the females at birth; the maturity 
of the cow is also of importance, the birth weight of calves from 
heifers and young cows being, on the average, about five pounds 
lower than that of calves from cows that had given birth to three 
or more calves. 

Gains Made by Calves. — In experiments at the Kansas sta- 
tion, calves reared on skim milk, grain and pasture from birth until 
one year old made the average gains during the successive months 
shown in the following table: 3 



Weight of Calves from Birth till One Year Old, in Pounds 



Age, 


Average 


Average 


Number 
of 

calves 


Age, 


Average 


Average 


Number 


months 


weight 


made 


months 


weight 


made 


calves 


Birth 


77 




23 










1 


111 


34 


45 


7 


403 


54 


38 


2 


144 


33 


56 


8 


455 


52 


28 


3 


181 


37 


60 


9 


515 


60 


21 


4 


229 


48 


60 


10 


578 


63 


20 


5 


287 


58 


54 


11 


626 


48 


20 


6 


349 


62 


43 


12 


669 


43 


19 



The gains made during the respective months were lowest during 
the first three months and higher toward the end of the year, with 
gains of about one pound per head daily during the first months, and 
about two pounds per head daily during the fifth to the tenth month ; 
the average daily gain during the entire year was 1.6 pounds per 
head. 

The method of feeding the calf will vary according to the pur- 
pose in view : Whether it is to be added to the dairy or beef herd, 
or is to be vealed. After considering some general phases of the 
subject of calf feeding, we shall take up separately the feeding 
of calves for the various purposes mentioned (Fig. 40). 

Feeding Stuffs for Calves. — The number of different feeds 
used for feeding calves is not as large as in the case of mature 



2 "Dairy Cattle and Milk Production," p. 174. 
'Bulletin 12G; see also Illinois Bulletin 164. 



CALF FEEDING 



217 



animals. The more important calf feeds are : Whole milk and 
dairy by-products, milk substitutes, hay, and various concentrates. 
Whole milk is the natural feed for calves, both as to the char- 
acter of its nutrients and the proportion in which these occur. It 
forms their sole feed for a period of a week or two to several months, 
according to the purpose in view, whether the calf is to be added 
to the breeding herd or to be vealed. 




Fig. 40. — Dairy calves in the pasture — an old -country scene. 



Only the fourth stomach (abomasum) of the new-born calf is 
fully developed; the other three compartments are small and do 
not take part in the digestion of the feed until the calf is old enough 
to eat solid feed. The lining of the fourth stomach of the young 
calf contains a considerable amount of the ferment rennin, and 
large numbers of such calves are killed annually in Europe, espe- 
cially in Bohemia, to supply the demand for rennet stomachs used in 
the manufacture of cheese. As the calf learns to eat solid feed, 
the other compartments of the stomach gradually develop, and the 
digestive processes become similar to those of grown animals. 

The amount of whole milk required for one pound of gain will 
vary considerably, according to the age of the calves. During the 



218 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIiMALS 



first few weeks, -1 to G pounds will make one pound of gain under 
favorable conditions, while with older calves it will require 8 to 12 
pounds to produce a pound of gain. 

Whole milk will produce larger gains in live weight than skim 
milk or other feeds, but this is made at considerably higher cost, 
on account of the high value of whole milk as a human food. If 
we assume that it will take 6 pounds of whole milk to make one 




Fig. 41. — At meal time the calf is fed warm, sweet milk in a clean pail, while securely 
fastened in a comfortable stanchion. (Wisconsin Station.) 

pound of gain in a young calf and 12 pounds of skim milk (p. 200), 
the cost of the ration will be cents in the former case, and 1.8 cents 
in the case of skim milk at ordinary creamery prices — $1.00 per 
hundred pounds for whole milk and 15 cents per hundred pounds 
of skim milk. In experiments at the Kansas station it cost four 
times as much to produce a pound of gain with calves on whole 
milk as on skim milk, although the whole-milk calves gained an 
average of 1.86 pounds daily, against 1.51 pounds for the skim- 
milk calves. 4 

Looking at the problem from another point of view, Otis found 
that two pounds of grain, when fed with the proper amount of 
skim milk, were equivalent for calf feeding to one pound of butter 

4 Bulletin 126; Wisconsin Bulletin 192. 



CALF FEEDING 



219 



fat in whole milk. With butter J'at at 25 cents per pound, 100 
pounds of grain (worth $1.00 to $1.50) will take the place of 
$12.50 worth of butter fat, and at 30 cents for butter fat it will 
take the place of $15 worth of butter fat. Feeding whole milk or 
poorly-skimmed milk to calves is, therefore, generally speaking, a 
very expensive and wasteful method, since skim milk with only 
a slight fat content, fed with grain feed, will produce almost as 
good results. 

Skim Milk. — The value of skim milk and other dairy by- 
products for calf feeding has already been considered (p. 207). 
Alter the second or third week skim milk may gradually take the 
place of whole milk, the proportion of the latter being slowly de- 
creased and that of skim milk increased until after a week or ten 
days the calf will be getting only skim milk. This is fed warm and 




F» 



-Calves in stanchions in pasture. ("Productive Farming," Davis.) 



sweet, and is most conveniently fed fresh from the separator. The 
foam of separator skim milk should always be skimmed off before 
feeding the milk to calves, as it tends to cause digestive troubles 
and bloating; colic and scouring resulting in death may follow in 
aggravated cases, if this precaution is neglected. A calf may be 
fed from 10 to 12 pounds of skim milk daily in three feeds until 
about six weeks old, when the amount may be increased to 16 
pounds or more, if he can handle it without scouring, and this is 
given in two feeds, one-half at each meal. 

It requires constant care and watchfulness to raise a skini- 
milk calf or one fed other dairy by-products; all sudden changes 
and irregularities in feeding must be avoided, as well as a too 
liberal allowance of milk (Figs. 41 and 42). Overfeeding or in- 
judicious feeding is a frequent cause of calf scours, and when this 
occurs the feed or milk must be reduced or withheld for a time, 
and special treatment resorted to. 



220 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Remedies for Calf Scours. — 1. A teaspoonful of sterilized dried blood 
(so-called blood Hour), thoroughly mixed with the milk at each meal, will 
generally remedy the trouble when it is promptly attended to. The blood 
meal also serves as an excellent tonic for weak calves. 

2. In aggravated cases of calf scours the milk is withheld and an egg 
in a tablespoonful of blackberry brandy is given three times a day till im- 
provement is noted. 

3. The formaldehyde treatment is another remedy that will produce good 
results in most cases after a few days. 4 A teaspoonful of formaldehyde 
solution (1 : 4000) is added per pint of milk, preferably fed immediately 
after the skim milk is received from the separator. The formaldehyde solu- 
tion is prepared by adding one-half ounce of formaldehyde to one pint of 
water. 

Rules for Feeding Young Calves. — The following rules 
adapted from Missouri Circular 47 epitomize the main points in 
feeding young calves : 

1. Do not overfeed. 

2. Feed sweet, preferably fresh, milk. 

3. Feed warm milk (85-90° F.). 

4. Feed each animal individually. 

5. Feed regularly. 

6. Keep pens and calf quarters thoroughly clean. 

" Where skim-milk calves do poorly, the blame usually rests 
with the feeder. The cause of the trouble will ordinarily be found 
in some one or more of the following conditions : Lack of sunlight 
and fresh air; unsanitary stalls or boxes that are not properly 
cleaned and disinfected; feeding too much milk, or at irregular 
intervals; feeding stale or chilled milk; feeding from pails that have 
not been scalded daily ; feeding improper concentrates, or allow- 
ing the excess to ferment and become stale in the feed box " 
(Henry). 

Supplemental Feeds with Skim Milk. — In order to compen- 
sate for the butter fat removed in the skim milk, many different 
methods have been recommended, and are followed with success by 
different farmers. Peanut oil, cod-liver oil, corn oil, or oleo- 
margarine heated to 110° F. and mixed thoroughly with the skim 
milk, is used to a limited extent, these fats being added in the pro- 
portion of one-half to one ounce per quart of milk. The most 
common and efficient supplemental feed for skim-milk-fed young 
calves is, doubtless, flaxseed. This may be added either direct, a 
tablespoonful of ground flaxseed per quart of milk, or the meal is 
boiled into a jelly with six parts of water, which is mixed with the 
skim milk in small amounts, the equivalent of two tablespoonfuls 
of the dry meal to a feed. 

The amount of skim milk required for one pound of gain in 

4 S. C. Circular 122; Farmers' Bulletin 273. 



CALF FEEDING 221 

feeding calves will range from about 8 pounds to 20 pounds, the 
amount of milk required increasing with the age and weight of the 
calves. When three to four weeks old, the calf will begin to eat 
some grain ; the best way to teach it to eat grain is to rub a little 
on its mouth when it is through drinking milk. From this it will 
soon learn to eat from the feed box. 

Many experiments have been conducted with feeding calves for 
the purpose of determining the value of different grain feeds to be 
fed supplementary to skim milk. In the corn-growing States corn 
meal will prove the best and most economical supplementary feed 
with skim milk, and it is theoretically also best suited for this pur- 
pose, being higher in starch than either of the other common grain 
feeds (N. R., 1: 9.5), while the skim milk is essentially a protein 
feed (N. 11., 1:2). Because of its constipating effects, ground 
kafir corn is well suited to be fed with skim milk. Some feeds can- 
not, on the other hand, be used for calf feeding with skim milk, or 
must be fed with great care, for the reason that they tend to in- 
crease the danger of scouring; examples are cod-liver oil, molasses, 
soybeans, and oil meal. 

Grain Feeds for Calves. — The following list, prepared by 
Otis, may serve as a guide to the farmer in making combinations of 
grain feeds to be fed with skim milk to suit his particular conditions : 

1. Corn meal, gradually changed in four to six weeks to shelled corn, 
with or without bran. 

2. Whole oats and bran. 

3. Whole oats and corn chop, the latter gradually replaced by shelled 
corn in four to six weeks. 

4. Ground barley with bran or shelled corn. 

5. Shelled corn and ground kafir corn or sorghum. 
0. Whole oats, ground barley, and bran. 

7. A mixture of twenty pounds of corn meal, twenty pounds of oatmea), 
twenty pounds of linseed meal, ten pounds of blood meal, and five pounds ot 
bone meal, changed to corn, oats, and bran when calves are three months old. 

8. A mixture of five pounds whole oats, three pounds bran, one pound 
corn meal, and one pound of linseed meal. 

Roughage for Calves. — Calves will nibble at roughage at about 
the time they begin to eat a little grain, at three to four weeks old or 
before. Fine, bright hay of either early-cut blue grass or mixed 
grasses makes the best roughage for calves. Alfalfa or clover hay of 
choice quality is also excellent, but must be fed with some care to 
young calves to prevent scouring. Hay sufficient for a day may be 
placed in a rack in a corner of the calf pen; any residue should be 
removed before a new supply is given. As the calf grows older, it will 
eat more roughage; at about six montbs old it will take about three 
times as much roughage as grain; a part of the former may be 



222 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



of succulent character. As a capacity for digesting huge amounts 
of coarse feed is important in the case of both dairy and beef cattle, 
it is a good plan to develop the digestive apparatus of the calf by 
feeding all the fine hay it will eat, along with the grain given. 

Succulent Feeds. — Corn silage of good quality made from at 
least nearly matured corn and free from mold may be fed to ad- 
vantage in small quantities, say about two pounds a day to calves 
that are old enough to eat it; older calves may be fed five to ten 
pounds with dry feed. Eoots are also excellent for calves. Pasture 
grass will give good results with calves four months old or over. 
To overcome the tendency of scouring when the calves are turned 
on to pasture, they may be fed some soiling crops during the first 
days, or may be left in the pasture only a short time daily at first, 
so as to gradually accustom them to the green feed. 

Water and Salt. — Calves should receive both water and salt 
regularly. Otis states that at three months of age a calf will drink, 
on the average, five quarts of water daily. They like to drink 
often, sipping a little at a time. A half barrel, cleaned and re- 
plenished twice daily, will serve nicely as a water trough. Another 
good device is an automatic waterer, which may be easily cleaned, 
placed a little above the floor to keep out the litter. Salt is essen- 
tial to the normal development of the calf, as of other farm ani- 
mals, and should be given regularly or kept before the calves all 
the time. 

Substitutes for Skim Milk. — On account of the large propor- 
tion of whole milk sold for direct consumption, to condensed milk 
factories, or to cheese factories, many farmers do not have skim 
milk to feed young stock, and numerous special calf meals have as 
a result been placed on the market to serve as a substitute for skim 
milk in calf raising. 

Composition of Calf Meals. — The following table shows some 
of the more important of these and their chemical composition : 
Chemical Composition of Calf Meals, in Per Cent 





Mois- 
ture 


Protein Fat 


Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 


Ash 


Blatchford's calf meal* 
Schumacher calf mealf 

Lactina Suisset 

Sugarota calf meal* .... 
No-Milk calf meal* 
Martin's calf feed* 


10.73 

9.59 

7.30 

9.81 

10.49 

10.83 

9.79 


25.00 
19.72 
29.75 
24.58 
20.05 
27.31 


5.19 
7.95 
6.20 
5.10 
5.26 
5.86 


6.21 
1.82 
3.00 
4.19 
4.86 
6.76 


47.98 
58.56 
44.01 
52.37 
54.92 
44.60 


4.89 

2.36 

9.74§ 

3.95 

4.42 

4.64 


Average (six brands) 


24.40 


5.93 


4.47 


50.41 


5.00 



♦Wis. Cir. 30. 



tWis. Cir. 22. 



t Mfr.'s guarantees. 



£ By difference. 



CALF FEEDING 223 

We note that the different brands of manufactured calf meals 
are high in protein, fat, and nitrogen-free extract, and low in fiber. 
Being composed of standard feeding stuffs of unquestioned merit, 
such as ground cereals, mill feeds, ground flaxseed, and oil meal, 
they are doubtless highly digestible and possess a high feeding 
value; their use will, therefore, depend upon the price at which they 
are sold in comparison to other feeds suitable for calf feeding. On 
this point it must be said that the prices charged for these feeds by 
manufacturers and dealers are, as a rule, high, being generally $2.50 
to $3.50 per hundredweight. Most dairy farmers can do better by 
making their own calf meals from standard and easily obtainable 
feeds, than to buy these manufactured feeds, unless they want to 
use only small amounts for individual calves that need some extra 
feed and care. Two of these meals (Blatchford's and No-Milk), 
have small amounts of mild drugs which contain aromatic princi- 
ples, and, as suggested, all are palatable feeds of a high nutritive 
value. The question is, however, whether a dairy farmer cannot 
obtain as good results with less expensive mixtures made from com- 
mon standard farm feeds. It seems evident that, as a general rule, 
he can do so. The following mixture will prove a very satisfactory 
calf feed and may be made by any farmer at a relatively low cost: 
20 party each of ground oats and wheat middlings, 10 parts corn 
meal, and 5 parts linseed meal or ground flaxseed (nutritive ratio 
1:4.6). 

A number of experiments have been conducted with calf feeds, 
the most extensive ones being, perhaps, the Cornell tests. The 
conclusions drawn from these experiments are, briefly stated, that 
good, strong, healthy calves can be raised without skim milk; skim 
milk, hay and grain make the best substitutes for whole milk for 
raising calves. A calf fed on skim milk should reach a weight of :!•»<! 
pounds at five months of age, and the gain should be made at the 
rate of one and one-half pounds per day. If skim milk is not at 
hand, the best substitute for it seems to be third-grade dried skim- 
milk powder. A calf fed on this feed should reach a weight of 
250 to 2G0 pounds at five months of age, making an average gain 
of 1.25 pounds per day. The manufactured meals did not, in 
general, produce economical gains. The calves on the best of these 
gained, on the average, 1.25 mid 1.1" pounds per day during two 

6 Bulletins 209 and 304; sec also Ontario Agricultural College Report, 
1900, 1905.; and Monthly Bulletin International Institute of Agriculture, 
vol. 4, 1914, p. 509. 



224 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

successive years. At eighteen months of age there was apparently 
no less constitutional vigor manifested by the animals that were 
in poor condition at fifteen months of age, due to feeding them 
substitutes for skim milk, than by the animals that received skim 
milk, and which were in better condition at that age. 

The Dairy Calf. T — The main point to be borne in mind in the 
feeding and the development of the dairy calf is to guard against 
an accumulation of fat in the animal, which would seriously inter- 
fere with the usefulness of the future cow in the dairy. Feeds of a 
fattening tendency are, therefore, to be avoided, and only such 
feeds are given as will develop a vigorous muscular frame and bone 
structure. With this end in view, the feeding of full milk to the 
dairy calf is discontinued after a couple of weeks, or before, in case 
of milk rich in butter fat, and separator skim milk is fed in its 
place, the change from one feed to another being made gradually, 
so as not to give rise to digestive disorders. The equivalent of 
about two ounces of flaxseed meal, boiled into a jelly with water 
(one part meal to six of water), is fed daily with the skim milk. 
At three or four weeks of age, other feeds are given, preferably 
oats, wheat middlings, or a mixture of both. Some feeders report 
good results from feeding farm-grains with skim milk after the first 
week. The calves will gradually learn to eat hay, if it be placed 
before them; a fine quality of clover or alfalfa hay or any good 
early-cut mixed hay is generally reserved for this purpose. The 
object in view throughout the first year should be to keep calves 
in a healthy growing condition, and to feed plenty of hay so as 
to develop the digestive apparatus of the calf, along with easily 
digestible feeds that will cause a rapid, normal growth without de- 
position of unnecessary body fat. Other desirable feeds for older 
calves than those mentioned are mill feeds, small grains, especially 
barley, oil meal, brewers' and distillers' grains, and malt sprouts. 
Cotton-seed meal, on the other hand, should be fed only sparingly, 
or not at all. 

Fall calves, as a rule, are to be preferred to spring calves on 
dairy farms, both because they can receive better care and attention 
during the winter months than in summer, and because they will 
go on pasture in the spring at an age when their digestive apparatus 
is developed so that the green grass may form their main feed, 
supplemented with some grains when pastures are scant. The time 

7 Adapted from an article by the author, on " Feeding Dairy Cattle," 
in Cycl. Amer. Agr., vol. iii. 



CALF FEEDING 225 

for calving of cows in a dairy herd, however, must he distributed 
over the year to some extent, so as to insure a fairly uniform milk 
supply throughout the year. 

The Beef Calf. — The method of feeding beef calves differs 
from that of feeding dairy calves mainly in the fact that they are 
fed more heavily so as to make more rapid gains than the latter. 
The beef calf is left with the dam or fed whole milk for two or 
three weeks to as many months, if milk does not bring more money 
used for other purposes. In the latter case, the calf is gradually 
brought over to skim milk; when older, the calf will eat hay and 
grain, and is fed increasing amounts of grain from this time on 
until ready for the market. Suckling beef calves fed whole milk 
should show a gain of three pounds per day for the first month, 
two and one-half pounds for the second, and two pounds thereafter, 
according to Henry, and should weigh 400 to 500 pounds at six 
months old. A calf at this age will eat approximately five pounds 
whole corn, two pounds whole oats, and one-half pound linseed meal 
a day; it should have plenty of good clover or alfalfa hay in addi- 
tion. The grain is increased after the calf is able to eat more with 
a good appetite, since the more he will eat, the faster he will gain, 
and the sooner he will be ready for market. If the calf is intended 
for "baby beef" (p. 2G9) and is to be marketed when sixteen to 
eighteen months old, the feeding is especially heavy so as to secure 
as rapid gains as possible. Only beef-bred bulls of a low and com- 
pact build will produce calves that are suitable for this purpose. 
Beef calves on whole milk or skim milk are fed chiefly corn; for 
fattening this is supplemented by oats, wheat bran, or linseed meal. 
Other important feeds for beef calves are pasture, corn silage, and 
roots; the two latter feeds are of the greatest value in enabling 
steers to stand heavy grain feeding without getting " off feed " or 
being subjected to digestive disorders. 

The Veal Calf. — Bull calves or heifer calves that are deficient 
in any way and are not wanted for the dairy herd or beef herd are 
generally killed at once or sold to buyers that make veal of them. 
For the highest grade of veal, whole milk is the only feed given, 
and the feeding is pushed as fast as possible so as to secure rapid 
gains and get the calf ready for market in prime veal condition. 
There is a strong demand for choice veal of this kind in Europe, 
and calves fattened on whole milk exclusively bring fancy prices; 
also in this country the demand for such veal is increasing in the 
large cities. Calves fed whole milk only can be readily distinguished 
15 



226 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

by experts by the white of the eye being free from any yellow tint and 
the inside of the eyelids, lips and nose being perfectly white. 8 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the average birth weight of dairy calves, and how is it influenced? 

2. Give the main feeding stuffs used for feeding calves. 

3. Discuss briefly when they are used and their relative values. 

4. Give three remedies for calf scours. 

5. Give the main precautions to be observed in feeding young calves. 

6. Name half a dozen different combinations of grain feeds that may be fed 

with skim milk to calves. 

7. State the general value of calf meals. 

8. Outline the method of raising (a) a dairy calf; (b) a beef calf; (c) a 

veal calf. 

Reference Books. — Students are referred to the following books on the 
general subjects of feeding farm animals: 

Henry, " Feeds and Feeding," Madison, Wis., 1912. 

Jordan, " The Feeding of Animals," New York, 1912. 

Armsby, " Manual of Cattle Feeding," New York, 1887. 

Armsby, " Principles of Animal Nutrition," New York, 1908. 

Smith, " Profitable Stock Feeding," Lincoln, Neb., 1906. 

Harper, " Manual of Farm Animals," New York, 1911. 

Shaw, " The Feeding and Management of Live Stock," St. Paul, Minn., 1912. 

Burkett, " First Principles of Feeding Farm Animals," New York, 1913. 

Plumb, " Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," Boston, 190G. 

Youatt-Fream, " The Complete Grazier," London, 1908. 

Kellner, " The Scientific Feeding of Animals " (trans, by Goodwin), London, 

1909. 
Wolff, " Farm Foods " (trans, by Cousins) , London. 
Hall, " The Feeding of Crops and Stock," New York, 1911. 
Allen, " The Feeding of Farm Animals," Farmers' Bulletin 22, 1901. 
Armsby, " The Maintenance Rations of Farm Animals," Bureau of Animal 

Industry, Bulletin 143, 1912. 
Armsby, " The Computation of Rations for Farm Animals by the Use of 

Energy Values," Farmers' Bulletin 346, 1909. 
Savage, " Computing Rations for Farm Animals," Cornell Bulletin 321, 1912. 

Literature on Calf Feeding.— Conn. (Storrs), r. 1903, b. 31; Ga., b. 90; 
Idaho, b. 48; Iowa, r. 1891, b. 35; 111., b. 164, c. 118; Ind., b. 47; Kans., b. 
97, 126; Ky., b. 171; b. 104; Md., b. 77; Mass., r. 1893, 1903, 1904, 1908; 
Mich., b. 257; Minn., r. 1894; Miss., 1894, b. 8; Mo. b. 57, c. 47; Nebr., b. 68, 
75, 87; N. H., b. 58; N. C, b. 199; Penna., r. 1891, b. 60; S. C, b. 122; Utah, 
b. 57 ; Va., b. 172; Wis., b. 1, 6, 7, 192. 

8 For descriptions of the methods of feeding adopted in making Scotch 
and Dutch veal, see Henry, " Feeds and Feeding," 10th ed., p. 314. 



CHAPTER XXII 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 

Feeding Standards for Dairy Cows. — In studying the best 
methods of feeding dairy cows, the leading standards should be 
kept well in mind. 

I. The Wolff -Lehmann Standards for Dairy Cows — WOO pounds live weight 



Daily 
milk 
yield 


Total 

dry 
matter 


Digestible 


N. It. 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
and fat * 


11.0 


25 


1.6 


10.7 


1:6.7 


16.5 


27 


2.0 


11.9 


1:6.0 


22.0 


29 


2.5 


14.1 


1:5.7 


27.6 


32 


3.3 


14.8 


1:4.5 



* Given separately by Wolff-Lehmann. 

II. The Armsby Standards for Dairy Cows 



For maintenance per 1000 pounds 

Per pound of average milk (13 per cent solids, 4 per 
cent fat) 



Digestible 
protein, 
pound 



.5 
.05 



Energy 
values, 
therms 



6.0 
.3 



The dairy cow is kept primarily for producing milk, one of 
the most valuable human foods and the raw material for the manu- 
facture of butter, cheese, and other dairy products. Through 
selection, liberal feeding, and careful management, the cow has 
gradually been developed to her present wonderful capacity for 
dairy production. The average production of many dairy herds 
at the present time exceeds one pound of butter fat per head for 
each day in the year, or over 3'60 pounds for the year. Cows hold- 
ing production records for milk and butter fat have, however, 
exceeded this amount many times, producing, respectively, over 
thirty thousand pounds of milk and nearly eleven hundred pounds 
of butter fat in a year. 1 

1 Records of yearly production: Tilly Alcartra 123459, Holstcin. 30,451 
pounds milk; May Rilma, Guernsey, 1073 pounds butter fat (p. 250). 

227 



228 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



While it does not lie within the scope of this book to discuss the 
various factors that have a bearing on this production, it seems de- 
sirable to state briefly the main influences that affect the value of 
a cow in the herd in order that we may see more clearly what part 
the feeding plays in the successful management of a dairy (Fig. 43). 




Fig. 43. — Dairy cows of good breeding and well kept and cared for make excellent returns 
"at the pail." 

Composition of Milk. — Cows' milk is composed of the follow- 
ing constituents: Water, butter fat, proteins (casein and albumen), 
milk-sugar, and ash. The amounts of these components present in 
milk of different origin, or even in milk from the same cow at 
different times, vary widely. The limits of variation for normal 
milk from American cows are about as follows : - 



Composition of Cows' Milk, with Variations, in Per Cent 





Minimum 


Maximum 


Average 


Water 


82.0 

2.3 

2.5 

3.5 

.6 


90.0 

7.8 

4.6 

6.0 

.9 


87.4 
3.7 
3.2 
5.0 

.7 


Fat 


Casein and albumen . . . 
Milk-sugar 


Mineral matter 



2 Farrington-Woll, "Testing Milk and its Products," 22nd edition, p. 
18; see also Wisconsin Eesearch Bulletin 26, p. 02. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



229 



The fat is the most valuable single component of the milk ; it 
determines the quality and value of the milk as a human food, and 
largely, also, as a raw material for the manufacture of dairy prod- 
ucts. A high fat content is, as a rule, accompanied hy a high 
per cent of solids other than fat, and is, therefore, of direct value 
in the manufacture of butter, cream, and condensed milk, and, up to 
a certain extent, in cheese-making as well. 

Factors Influencing Milk Production. — The main factors that 
influence the amount and quality of milk produced hy cows are: 
Breed, individuality, age, stage of lactation period, frequency of 
milking, condition, excitement, season of the year, temperature 
and weather, grooming, and amount and character of feed. 

Breed. — The various breeds of cows yield milk in different 
amounts and of different quality, as is well known to all. The fol- 
lowing compilation, giving the average production of milk and 
butter fat by pure-bred dairy cows, will show the extent of the 
differences between the various breeds in these respects. The figures 
were compiled from the results obtained in tests conducted for a 
series of years at four American experiment stations (Maine, New 
Jersey, New York, and Wisconsin). The cost of feed required to 
produce 100 pounds of milk and 1 pound of butter fat in the case 
of the different breeds is also given. Prices of feed have advanced 
from 30 to 40 per cent since these breed tests were conducted, 
hence the figures in the last columns should be varied accordingly. 3 

Test of Pure-bred Dairy Cows — Average Results for Four Stations 



Breed 



Jersey 

Guernsey 

Ilolstein 

Ayrshire 

Shorthorn 

Devon 

Brown Swiss 

American Holderness.. 

Total and average. 



Num- 
ber of 
cows 



19 

17 

14 

10 

12 

3 

2 

2 

79 



Lacta- 
tion 

periods 



87 

67 

43 

20 

55 

5 

6 

4 



Average yield per 

lactation period, 

pounds 



Milk 



5681 
6243 
9275 
6909 
7512 
3984 
6971 
5721 



Fat 



302.1 
317.1 
317.7 
248.5 
296.5 
1S3.3 
273.0 
213.1 



Per 

cent 

fat 



5.32 
5.08 
3.42 
3.59 
3.94 
4.60 
3.91 
3.73 



Feed cost for 



100 


One 


pounds 


pound 


milk, 


fat, 


cents 


cents 



77.6 
69.9 
61.3 
78.5 
62.4 
94.0 
49.5 
76.0 

71.2 



15.2 
13.7 
17.9 
21.5 
15.3 
20.5 
12.6 
20.1 

17.1 



Only a limited number of cows of the various breeds were in- 
cluded in these tests, and the conditions under which the tests were 



See also Wisconsin Keport, 1901, p. 85. 



230 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



conducted at the different stations differed more or less, as did also 
the breeds represented in the respective trials. The results, there- 
fore, cannot be taken as absolute evidence of the capacity of the dif- 
ferent breeds for dairy production, but they doubtless show in a 
general way the relative value of the breeds in the dairy. We note 
that the breeds rank as shown below in regard to: (a) Yield of 
milk, (b) yield of butter fat, (c) per cent of fat, (d) feed cost for 
100 pounds milk, (e) feed cost per one pound butter fat. 



a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


1. Holstein 


Holstein 


Jersey 


Brown Swiss 


Brown Swiss 


2. Shorthorn 


Guernsey 


Guernsey 


Holstein 


Guernsey 


3. Brown Swiss 


Jersey 


Devon 


Shorthorn 


Jersey 


4. Ayrshire 


Shorthorn 


Shorthorn 


Guernsey 


Shorthorn 


5. Guernsey 


Brown Swiss 


Brown Swiss 


Am. Holderness 


Holstein 


6. Am. Holderness 


Ayrshire 


Am. Holderness 


Jersey 


Am. Holderness 


7 Jersey 


Am. Holderness 


Ayrshire 


Ayrshire 


Devon 


8. Devon 


Devon 


Holstein 


Devon 


Ayrshire 



Individuality. — There are wide variations between individuals 
within the same breed as to the capacity for milk production and 
the quality of the milk produced. These variations are of much 
greater magnitude than the average differences between the breed. 
The great difference between individuals of the same breed as re- 
gards the amount of production is familiar to all ; an average cow 
produces, say, 20 pounds of milk a day, containing three-fourths 
pound butter fat; a very good dairy cow, on the other hand, will 
yield over twice this amount, and exceptional producers will give 
more than quadruple the figures stated. But the average quality 
of milk of cows of the same breeds also differs greatly. The 
variations are probably larger within the Jersey and Guernsey 
breeds than in any other breed; there are thus cows or families 
within these breeds that produce milk of an average fat content 
above G per cent during the entire lactation period, while individuals 
of other families will generally not go over 4 per cent. In the 
same way, we find some Holstein cows producing milk with over 
4 per cent fat, and others whose milk will contain less than 2.8 per 
cent, on the average, for a considerable period of time. 

Age of Cows. — This is not, on the whole, an important factor. 
As a general rule, heifers and young cows will give milk of a some- 
what higher fat content than older cows, but the differences in the 
average quality of the milk for a long period of time, say one year, 
are only within a few tenths qf one per cent in the fat content, and 
there are some individuals whose milk changes with advancing age 
in the opposite direction from that stated. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



231 



Stage of Lactation Period. — This is of greater importance 
than the age of the cow. The quality of the milk is, in general, 
higher during the first few weeks after parturition than later on, 
and remains fairly constant from this time on until toward the 
close of the lactation, when the milk becomes richer in solids and 
fat as the yield decreases (Fig. 44). The following compilation 
by the author of 300 cows 4 entered in the Wisconsin Dairy Cow 
Competition, 1909-1911, will illustrate the changes in production 
of dairy cows during the progress of the lactation period : 

Average Daily Production of Dairy Cows by Months 



Month of 


Average daily production by months 


Number 


lactation 
period 


Milk 


Solids 


Fat 


of cows 


1 


Pounds 

43.9 
41.9 
38.8 
36.4 
34.6 

32.8 
30.8 
27.6 
23.9 
19.2 

16.7 
14.0 


Pounds 

5.63 
5.32 
4.93 
4.65 
4.41 

4.18 
3.92 
3.57 
3.13 

2.58 

2.28 
1.92 


Per cent 

12.82 
12.70 
12.70 
12.77 
12.75 

12.74 
12.73 
12.93 
13.10 
13.44 

13.65 
13.71 


Pounds 

1.76 
1.65 
1.54 
1.46 
1.39 

1.32 
1.25 
1.14 
1.02 
0.87 

0.78 
0.67 


Per cent 

4.01 
3.94 
3.98 
4.02 
4.02 

4.02 
4.06 
4.13 
4.27 
4.53 

4.67 
4.79 


323 


2 


323 


3 


323 


4 


323 


5 


323 


6 


323 


7 


323 


8 


323 


9 


323 


10 


323 


11 


251 


12 


74 







The normal decrease in the flow of milk in well-managed dairy 
herds is about 5 per cent a month during the second to seventh 
month of the lactation period, about 10 to 12 per cent during the 
eighth and ninth months, and 20 per cent for the tenth and subse- 
quent months. 

Condition. — The physical condition of a cow will influence the 
quality and amount of her milk secretion. A dairy cow in good 
flesh will give more milk and of richer quality than cows in poor 
condition. Where cows in a fleshy body condition are placed on 
official tests shortly after parturition their milk will contain 1 to 2 
per cent fat above normal during the first 2 to 3 weeks, as has been 
shown by Eckles and the author; 5 cows in good flesh directly after 
parturition will also produce milk of a higher fat content through- 

4 Wisconsin Research Bulletin 26*. 

5 Missouri Bulletin 100; Wisconsin Report 19, p. 117; 20, p. 114. 



232 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



out the lactation period than cows that are thin and poor at the 
beginning of the lactation. 

Frequency of Milking. — Under otherwise similar conditions, 
the shorter the interval between milkings, the less milk is obtained 
and the higher are the percentages of solids and butter fat con- 
tained therein. Where the interval between milkings is nearly 
equal, the differences in quality will, as a rule, be small. If the 
cows are milked three times a day, the noon milking is richest and 
tbe morning milking generally lowest in butter fat, while the amount 
of milk is least at noon and heaviest in the morning. 



POUNDS MILK 



LBS 

45 



40 
35 
PERCENT FAT 30 
25 
20 
15 
10 



43.9 












































401% 





































































































































4.79* 



14.0 LBS 



8 



10 



i; 



12 



Fig. 44. — Normal changes in the monthly yield and the fat content of the milk from 
dairy cows with the progress of the lactation period, based on the results obtained in the 
Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition, 1909-11. 

Excitement. — A feverish condition is generally accompanied by 
a decrease in milk flow and an increase in the fat content; in cases 
of severe illness, tbe percentage of butter fat in the milk will, how- 
ever, be abnormally low. Cows in heat, cows handled rougbly, 
cbased by dogs, or excited through other causes, will, as a rule, give 
a greatly diminished amount of milk, which will test very high. 

Temperature and Weather. — Both excessively high tempera- 
tures and cold, heavy rain storms are likely to cause a marked de- 
crease in the percentage of butter fat in the milk. Periods of 
drought, according to Van Slyke, cause a decrease in tbe flow of 
milk and in the contents of casein and albumen, especially the 
latter, while either no change or an increase in the percentage of 
butter fat will occur. 7 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 233 

Season of Year. — The percentage fat content of milk appears 
to be subject to certain seasonal influences that are independent of 
the stage of lactation period, the breed of cows, or the system of 
feeding. The lowest fat content of the milk will, in general, occur 
during hot weather, in June or July, and from this time on a regular 
increase occurs, which reaches its maximum in December or Janu- 
ary, and a general gradual decrease then takes place until toward 
midsummer. This seasonal influence appears to depend on the 
temperature of the air, and is, therefore, to be expected from what 
was said in the preceding paragraph. 

Grooming and Exercise. — Grooming and moderate exercise 
stimulate the circulation and tend to cause a slight increase in the 
milk production and in the percentage of butter fat in the milk. 
Eesults of German experiments on this point s are somewhat more 
favorable than those of experiments conducted in this country. 9 
The effects of grooming on the health of the animals and on the 
condition of the milk are, however, important factors. In dairies 
producing certified or sanitary milk the cows are curried and 
groomed regularly, and udders and hindquarters are washed. This, 
doubtless, is an effective means of promoting the health of the herd 
and lessening the bacterial content of the milk. 

Influence of Feed on Quality of Milk. — Contrary to the 
opinion held quite generall}*" by dairy farmers up to recent years, 
the feed does not exert any marked influence on the quality of 
the milk secretion, so long as the cow receives sufficient nutriment 
in her ration to maintain her body weight. Given a fair amount 
of protein and digestible nutrients in the ration, the quality of the 
milk is not affected by a more liberal system of feeding or by fur- 
nishing any special feed or combination of feeds. Underfed or 
starved cows produce milk of an abnormally low fat content, and 
this may be readily raised to the normal percentage for the individual 
cow by increasing the feed. On the other hand, by feeding rations 
high in protein, a cow will give milk of the highest fat content of 
which she is capable, but any improvement in quality that may be 
wrought by such feeding is small, within one or two tentbs of one 
per cent above normal at the most. A slight improvement in the 
composition of the milk has been observed in some cases by feeding 
single feeds, notably palm-nut meal and coconut meal, and by 

6 See Eckles, Milchw. Zentralbl., 1!)09, p. 488. 

7 Geneva (N. Y.) Bulletin 08; see also Wisconsin Report. 1S ( J5, p. 111. 

8 Jr. f. Landw., 41 ( IS!):}), p. 332. 
"Vermont Report, 1899, 1900. 



234 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

feeding fat or oil, but the evidence with regard to this point fur- 
nished by different experiments is often conflicting, and in cases 
where greater differences were found as a result of a certain system 
of feeding there was a gradual return to normal after a couple of 
weeks or before, when the cows became accustomed to the feed. 
In general, both dairy farmers and scientists are now agreed that 
it is impossible to change materially the percentage of fat in a 
cow's milk by the feed; no amount of rich feeding or supplying 
special feeds will change the milk of a Holstein to a composition 
similar to that of a Jersey, or make low-testing cows or families 
into " high testers." The largest improvement in quality that 
can be hoped for would be within a few tenths of one per cent. 
" The quality of the milk which the cow produces is as natural to 
her as the color of her hair "; it is a practically fixed character that 
is intimately connected with the functional activity of the mammary 
gland. 

Influence on Quantity of Milk. — The feed eaten by a cow in- 
fluences in a marked manner the quantity of milk secreted, and 
determines the production that the cow will make, up to the capacity 
of her mammary glands. The feed is, therefore, of primary im- 
portance in the management of a dairy, and the problem before 
the dairy farmer is to provide feed for his cows that will secure the 
largest production of which these are capable, at a minimum cost. 
As it is only the excess of feed eaten over and above mainten- 
ance requirements that is used for productive purposes, it follows 
that the more a cow will eat without increasing appreciably in body 
weight, the larger returns she will yield per unit eaten (see chart, 
p. 236). The old saying, " Feed your cow and she will feed you," 
expresses the practical experience as to the relation of feed to 
product. With cows of the dairy type that respond to a more 
liberal system of feeding by an increase in milk production and not 
by a gain in body weight, this is a safe rule to follow in the manage- 
ment of a dairy. It is the heavy eaters that produce the largest 
yields and give the most economical production. 10 

The Value of High-producing Cows. — Eesults obtained in 
the Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition, 1909-1911, illustrate in a 
striking manner the value of high-producing cows. The following 
table gives some of the main data for the highest, medium, and 
lowest producers among the 398 cows in the competition for which 
complete records of production for a full year were obtained. The 

10 Proc. Soc. Prom. Apr. Science, 1012, p. 23; Wisconsin Bulletin 102, 
p. 78, and Research Bulletin 26. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



235 



cows were separated into three groups of the same number of cows 
within each of the dairy breeds represented, Holstein, Jersey, and 
Guernsey, according to their production of butter fat; the data 
for the different groups have been combined and are given in the 
following table : M 

Returns from Cows of Different Producing Powers 





Butter 

fat, 
pounds 


Cost 

of 
feed 


Net 
returns 


Feed 
units 


Per 100 feed units 


Groups 


Butter 

fat, 
pounds 


Value 

of 

products 


1. Highest producers (134 cows) .... 

2. Medium producers (133 cows) 

Differences between 1 and 3 . . . . 


529.1 
420.6 
338.9 

190.2 
56 


$79.10 
71.08 
65.95 

13.15 
20 


$S7.72 
63.01 
42.17 

45.55 
108 


7161 
6574 
6084 

1077 
18 


7.39 
6.40 
5.57 

1.82 
32 


$2.33 
2.04 

1.78 

.55 
31 







While the difference in the average production of butter fat by 
groups 1 and 3 amounted to 190.2 pounds, or 56 per cent, calculated 
on the production of group 3, the cost of feed for the two groups 
increased only 20 per cent, and that of total number of feed units 
18 per cent. The differences in net returns (the value of products 
above cost of feed), on the other hand, amounted to 108 per cent, 
and 100 feed units produced 31 to 32 per cent more butter fat or 
value of products in case of group 1 compared with group 3 ; that 
is, tbe best cows made the largest production at a relatively much 
lower feed cost; hence the percentage increase in the net returns 
secured was much greater than that in butter fat, viz., 108 per 
cent above that for the lowest lot. The number of feed units con- 
sumed in the rations fed was increased by only 18 per cent, and 
the efficiency of the rations calculated per 100 feed units was 
increased by over 30 per cent. 

The same lesson is taught still more strikingly by the results 
obtained with the best ten and the poorest ten cows in the competi- 
tion (Fig. 45) ; the feed of the former cost $114.66 per head for 
the year, while the net returns were $124.29, or 52 per cent; the 
feed of the latter cost $61.10, and the net returns were $14.8!». or 
only 20 per cent. 

The preceding results were obtained with excellent dairy cows, 
of families that had been bred persistently for a large milk pro- 
duction for many generations. Cows of this type respond to 
heavier feeding by an increased milk production ; other cows of 
different breeding, or bred for beef production, would gain in body 

11 Wisconsin Bulletin 22G, p. 22. 



236 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



flesh by such feeding, and their milk production would be likely 
to suffer if forced by liberal feeding (Fig. 46). Nearly all dairy 
herds that have not been carefully culled will contain a considerable 
proportion of the latter kind of cows; in feeding a herd the in- 





BEST TEN COWS 



POOREST TEN COWS 



Fig. 45. — The areas of the circles represent the average values of the products from 
the best ten or the poorest ten cows in the Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition, 1909-11. 
(Wisconsin Station.) 



MAINTENANCE 
RATION ONLY 



INSUFFICIENT 
RATION 

LIBERAL RATION FED 
TO GOOD DAIRr COWS 



MAINTENANCE 



MAINTENANCE MILK PRODUCTION 



MAINTENANCE MILK PRODUCTION 



MAINTENANCE MILK PRODUCTION GAIN IN WEIGHT 
LIBERAL RATION FED 
TO BEEF COWS 

Fig. 46. — Liberal rations fed to cows of beefy tendencies produce a gain in weight; such 
fed to good dairy cows produce the largest production of milk of which they are capable. 
(Van Norman.) 

dividual cows must, therefore, be carefully watched lest they be 
fattened by the system of feeding adopted instead of increasing 
in their milk production. Regular weighing of cows, say once a 
month or oftener, is a valuable aid in the management of a dairy 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



237 



herd, as it furnishes definite information as to changes in the 
body weight of individual cows that may occur. 

Improvement of Dairy Herds. — The most important factor to 
be ascertained by a dairy farmer is whether the cows he is feeding 
are of the dairy type and capable of a good dairy production, or 
are what are termed " boarders " — cows whose milk production is 
barely sufficient to pay for the feed they 
eat. This can only be determined by 
testing the individual herds for produc- 
tion, by means of a milk scale (Fig. 
47) anda Babcock tester (Fig. 48). 
This work may be done by the farmer 
himself or by joining a cow-testing asso- 
ciation, or by having official tests con- 
ducted under the direction of the State 
Agricultural College in cooperation 
with the respective breed associations. 
Only cows that come up to a certain 
standard of production of milk or butter 
fat should be retained in the herd. This 
may be gradually increased from 250 to 
300, 350, or even 400 pounds butter fat 
a year. Cows that do not reach the 
standard are disposed of as opportunity 
offers, unless they give promise of doing 
better in the future, as the Tr have no 
place in the dairy herd. 

Low producers eat considerably more 
feed per unit of production than high- 
producing cows, and are not capable of 
an economical production. Investiga- 
tions of dairy herds at a number 
of experiment stations 12 have clearly 
demonstrated the futility of making 
dairying pay at present high prices 
for feed and labor, with cows other than of the strict dairy type, that 
are good individuals; they may be pure-breds, high grade, grade, 
or natives, according to the resources and the business ability of 
the farmer, hut they must have inbred dairy tendencies and be 
able to consume large amounts of feed without growing fat. Ac- 
cording to the experience of dairy experts, most farmers do not 

52 See Minnesota Bulletin 35 ; Connecticut (Storrs) Bulletin 29; Illinois 
Circular 106; Wisconsin Bulletins 102, 200, and 226. 




Fig. 47. — The spring milk-scale 
enables the farmer to keep accurate 
milk records of his cows with but 
very little extra effort. (Ottawa sta- 
tion). 



238 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



feed their cows to the limit of economical production, and do not try 
to ascertain whether their cows are capable of making an increased 
production (Fig. 49). Until this is done, dairy farming, which 
is one of the most profitable branches of agriculture and animal 
husbandry, will not yield adequate returns for the labor it requires. 




t apparatus. ("Productive Farming," Davis.) 



Amount of Feed Eaten Annually by Dairy Cows. — The table 
given below shows the amount of different feeds eaten during the 
year, by cows in the dairy herds of nine experiment stations, with 
production of milk and butter fat as well as feed cost, according 
to Henry. 13 The estimated feed units have been added by the 



Annual Feed Requirements of the Dairy Cow a& 


Found by Nine Stations * 




Num- 
ber of 
years 


Pas- 
ture, 
days 


Con- 
cen- 
trates, 
pounds 


Feed eaten 


Aver- 
cost 

of feed 
per 
cow 


Returns 




Station 


Soiling 
crops 
roots, 

or 
silage, 
pounds 


Hay, 

pounds 


Milk, 
pounds 


Fat, 
pounds 


Esti- 
mated 
feed 
units 


Connecticut. . . 
New Jersey.. . . 

Missouri 

Utah 


5 
6 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
5 

25 


152 
168 
139 
180 
131 
191 
187 
150 
153 

161 


2029 
2624 
2774 
1914 
3435 
3027 
1976 
1169 
1305 

2250 


8694 
16753 
3638 
9448 
5306 

3692 
52S1 


1830 
1825 
3986 
1200 
2029 
4380 
2347 
6468 
4518 

3076 


$53.46 
44.68 
35.96 
37.68 
37.82 
35 30 
31.61 
32.45 
21.43 


5498 
6165 
7009 
7061 
6408 
5927 
8783 
5993 
5601 

6494 


279 

277 
260 
299 
301 
248 
339 
250 
237 

277 


5730 
7836 
5964 
5769 
6439 
6327 
5635 


Montana 


5903 
5094 


Average for 
nine herds 


$36.71 


6077 



* Connecticut Bulletin 29; New Jersey Reports, 1897-1904; Michigan Bulletin 166; 
Wisconsin Reports, 1905-7; Minnesota Bulletin 35; Missouri Bulletin 26; Utah Bulletin 68; 
Montana Reports, 1905; Nebraska Bulletin 101. 

13 " Feeds and Feeding," 10th ed., p. 427. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



239 



author and also the average figures for the nine stations, includ- 
ing, in the aggregate, twenty-five years for the herds considered. 

The system of feeding adopted in the herds included in the 
preceding compilation varied greatly, hoth in kinds of feeds and 
intensity of feeding. The average figures give, however, quite a 
satisfactory statement of the actual feed requirements of dairy 
cows as fed in this country. We note that these herds ranged in 
the amount of milk produced from 5498 pounds in Connecticut 
(largely Jerseys and Guernseys) to 8783 pounds in Utah (grades), 
and in butter fat from 237 pounds in Nebraska (largely Jerseys and 
Holsteins) to 339 pounds in Utah; the average production for all 
nine herds was 6494 pounds of milk and 277 pounds of butter fat. 14 
The average feed per cow for all herds was 2250 pounds of concen- 



Relation Of Digestible Matter 
And Protein to Total Dry Matter 
r ORDRYCOWS in Rations For 



1200 Pound Cows 




ORY MATTEB 



Fig. 49. — Production and size are the factors determining the feed requirements of 
dairy cows. The amounts of dry matter and digestible protein in feed rations should increase 
in proportion to the production of butter fat. 

trates, 5281 pounds of succulent feeds (soiling crops, roots, and 
silage), 3076 pounds of hay (mixed timothy, clover, or alfalfa), and 
161 pasture days, the average feed cost per cow being $36.71 (see 
p. 229), and the number of feed units eaten, 6077. These figures 
will serve as a basis for estimating the actual feed requirements of 
dairy cows in this country and the returns that may be expected 
with good cows and careful management. 

Feeding Standards. — The feeding standards for dairy cows 

14 Corresponding to 323 pounds of commercial butter, obtained by add- 
ing one-sixth to the amount of butter fat, which is a safe average estimate. 



240 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



according to Wolff-Lehmann and Armsby are given at the begin- 
ning of this chapter. The former standards have been modified 
by Haecker, 15 who has calculated the amounts of digestible protein, 
carbohydrates, and fat required for the production of a pound of 
milk testing 3 to 6.5 per cent as follows : 



Requirements for Milk of Different Richness 





Digestible 




Protein 


Carbohydrates 
and fat * 


For maintenance per 1000 pounds 


.700 
.047 
.054 
.060 
.067 
.072 


7.225 


Per pound of milk testing 3 per cent 

4 per cent 

5 per cent 


.238 
.287 
.334 




.383 




.405 







* Given separately in Haecker's standards. 

In addition to giving digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat 
to the third decimal place, Haecker calculates the requirements 
per pound of milk for differences in fat contents of only 0.1 
of 1 per cent between 3.0 and 6.5 per cent. In view of the 
great differences in the returns made by different cows from the 
feed eaten, and the great variations to which feeding stuffs are 
subject, both as regards composition and digestibility, it would 
seem rather unnecessary to make such fine distinctions. Eckles 16 
has modified the Armsby standards according to the fat content 
of the milk produced, allowing 0.05 to 0.07 pound digestible pro- 
tein and 0.26 to 0.45 therm per pound of milk testing 3 to 6 per 
cent (p. 39). 

The American Practical Feeding Ration. — The author pub- 
lished in the nineties the following so-called " American Practical 
Feeding Eation " for dairy cows, as a result of studies of the methods 
of feeding and the experiences of more than one hundred promi- 
nent American dairy farmers with regard to the amounts and 
character of the feed which will be likely to give the best and most 
economical results under our conditions when fed to good dairy 
cows in full flow of milk and of an average weight of 1000 pounds : 1T 

15 Minnesota Bulletin 130. 

10 Missouri Research Bulletin 7. 

17 Wisconsin Bulletin 38. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



241 



Dry matter 24.15 pounds. 

Digestible protein 2.15 pounds. 

Digestible carbohydrates and fat 14.5 pounds. 

Nutritive ratio 1 : 6.9 

Feeding Table for Dairy Cows. — While not formulated as a 
standard, Professor Humphrey and the author, in 1911, published 
a table showing at a glance the quantities of dry matter and di- 
gestible components required daily by dairy cows of 800 to 1500 
pounds body weight, and producing from less than one-half pound 
to over two pounds butter fat per day. 18 This table is based chiefly 
on the results obtained in investigations with the dairy herd of 
the Wisconsin station for a period of nine years. 

The figures for 1000-pound cows are shown in the table : 

Feed Requirements for 1000-pound Dairy Cows Producing 0.5 to 2.0 Pounds 
Butter Fat Per Day, in Pounds 



Dairy cows (maintenance) 

Production of butter fat per day 

Less than 0.5 pound 

0.5 to 0.75 pound 

0.75 to 1.0 pound 

1.0 to 1.25 pounds 

1.25 to 1.5 pounds 

1.5 to 1.75 pounds 

1.75 to 2.0 pounds 



Dry 


Digestible 


matter 


protein 


12.5 


.70 


16.2 


1.18 


18.7 


1.49 


21.1 


1.80 


23.6 


2.11 


26.0 


2.43 


28.5 


2.74 


30.9 


3.05 



Total 

digestible 

matter 



7.9 

10.6 
12.3 
14.1 
15.8 
17.6 
19.3 
21.1 



The composition of a certain combination of feeds may be 
readily compared with the requirements of cows of different body 
weight and productive capacities, as shown in this table, and 
rations thus formulated which will contain approximately the 
amounts of dry matter and digestible protein required for a cer- 
tain production of butter fat. The corresponding amounts of 
digestible carbohydrates and fat may be readily found by subtract- 
ing the amount of digestible protein from that of total digestible 
matter, and the nutritive ratio by dividing this difference by the 
amount of digestible protein. 

Example: A 1000-pound cow producing 1.3 pounds butter fat per day 
was fed as follows: 10 pounds alfalfa hay, 25 pounds corn silage, 10 pounds 
of a grain mixture composed of corn, oats, and wheat middlings, in the 
proportion of 2: 2: 1. This ration contains the amounts of total digestible 
matter and energy values as given below, on the supposition that the feeds 
are of average composition and digestibility. 

18 Wisconsin Bulletin 200; see also Woll. Handbook, p. 19&. 
16 



242 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Corn-position of Ration for Dairy Cows, in Pounds 





Dry 

matter 


Digestible 


Digestible 

true 

protein 


Energy 

values, 
therms 




Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 
and fat 


10 pounds alfalfa hay . . . 
25 pounds corn silage . . . 

4 pounds oats 

4 pounds corn 

2 pounds wheat mid- 
dlings 

Total 


9.2 
6.6 
3.6 
3.6 

1.8 

24.8 


1.10 
.30 

.37 
.32 

.25 

2.34 


4.2 
4.5 
2.3 
3.1 

1.2 

15.3 


.69 
.22 
.33 
.27 

.26 

1.77 


3.44 
4.14 
2.65 
3.55 

1.55 

15.33 



According to the Armsby standard modified by Eckles, this cow, if pro- 
ducing, say, 30 pounds of milk testing 4.03 per cent, should receive: 

Digestible Energy 

protein, value, 

pounds therms 

For maintenance 5 6.0 

For production 1.62 8.6 

Total 2.12 14.6 

The cow did not, therefore, receive as much protein or as many therms 
of energy values in the ratio given as called for by the standard; but the 
difference is very likely apparent rather than real, since it will be found, on 
examination, that the digestible true protein in alfalfa hay, according to the 
table, is very low, and probably lower than the actual content in average 
alfalfa hay, which contains 1.10 per cent digestible crude protein. 

By the use of the table (p. 241) we find that the cow should receive 26 
pounds dry matter, 2.4 pounds digestible protein, and 15.2 pounds digestible 
non-nitrogenous components. These amounts agree closely with the cal- 
culated composition of the ration, showing that this would furnish an 
ample supply of nutrients for a 1000-pound cow producing about 1.3 pounds 
butter fat a day. According to the Haecker standard, 19 the cow would be en- 
titled to the following amounts of nutrients : 

Digestible Carbohy- 
protein, drates and 
pounds fat, pounds 

For maintenance 70 7.0 

For production 1.62 8.7 

Total 2.32 15.9 

Also, in this case, there is a close agreement between the standard and 
the composition of the ration calculated according to the average composition 
of the various feeding stuffs. 

Feeding the Dairy Heifer. — The practice of good dairy farmers 
as to the time of breeding heifers differs considerably. The best 
results may, however, be expected by breeding so that the heifer 

"Minnesota Bulletin 130. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 243 

will come in at about two years of age. As the time of parturition 
approaches, the feeding of the heifer should be plain, without stimu- 
lating feeds that may have a deleterious influence on the foetus and 
cause abortion, as fermented or decayed feeds. 

Good, clean hay from clover or mixed grasses, corn fodder, corn 
silage (made from well-matured corn and fed in moderate quanti- 
ties, not to exceed 20 pounds a day), or roots should form the main 
reliance; preferably both dry and succulent roughage is fed, and, 
in addition, small amounts of ground oats, bran, shorts, gluten 
feed or corn, the last feed being given only when the heifer is in 
poor flesh. Shortly before calving, the feeding of all grain feeds, 
except, perhaps, about two pounds of bran, is discontinued. Directly 
after calving, lukewarm water only, or a warm, thin slop of oatmeal, 
bran, or shorts, is given for a few days until the danger of milk 
fever is over; the amount of feed given should be very light, and 
then gradually increased for two to three weeks, when the cow may 
be put on full feed. By this time, or before, the maximum produc- 
tion of butter fat, and generally also of milk, will be reached. 

A heifer with her first calf should receive special care and be 
fed liberally, since she is growing and producing milk at the same 
time. A good supply of protein feeds must be furnished in her 
ration to meet the requirements of the body for nitrogenous com- 
jionents. Corn meal is especially valuable at this time for Tieifers 
that show a tendency to " milk their flesh off." The heavy feeding 
should be continued up to drying-off prior to the second calving. 
A persistent milking habit is favored by continuing to milk the 
heifer for about ten months during the first lactation period, if 
possible. 

Summer Feeding of Dairy Cows. — The favorable influence of 
early summer pasturage on the milk secretion of cows, both as re- 
gards yield and quality, and, more especially, its fat content, has 
been known to observing dairy farmers so long as milk records 
have been kept or tests of milk have been made. Ample pasturage 
is one of the essentials of successful dairy farming, where the soil- 
ing system or feeding of summer silage is not practised. During 
tht' early part of the season the cows will, as a rule, find a sufficient 
supply of feed on pasture alone, but later it will often be necessary 
to supplement the pasture with soiling crops or summer silage, 
or, if neither is available, to feed grain feeds. The feeding of grail) 
to cows on pasture is, in general, only profitable when there is a 
scarcity of pasturage (p. 94). In the case of heavy milkers it will, 
however, be advantageous to feed at least a few pounds of wheat 



244 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

bran, or wheat bran and oats, throughout the season, in order to 
enable them to maintain a maximum production. 

The use of soiling crops or summer silage on dairy farms is an 
important feature of intensive dairy farming, as two to three times 
as much green forage may be secured per acre by this system as by 
pasturing; it also enables the farmer to maintain, so far as possible, 
the milk production of his herd during late summer, when hot 
weather and flies combine to reduce the production of the cows, 
both for the time being and for the balance of the lactation period. 
A variety of soiling crops is fed in different sections : Corn, alfalfa, 
peas and oats, rye, rape, etc. (see p. 96). Some of these crops, 
such as rye, rape, and oats, should be fed with care in small quanti- 
ties at the start, and always after milking, so that they will not 
taint the milk or the products made therefrom. 

Summer silage is a highly-prized feed on many American dairy 
farms. Generally a small, separate silo is filled in the fall for the 
purpose of feeding the silage in late summer, when drouth and 
hot weather are likely to cause serious damage to the pasture. The 
most common silage crops are corn, alfalfa, and red clover, — corn 
being of most importance in the greater portion of our dairy sec- 
tions. Thirty pounds of soiling crops or silage are an average 
allowance for dairy cows on poor pastures ; as much as sixty pounds 
of soiling crops or forty pounds of silage may be fed in the case of 
large cows during seasons of drought when pastures are scant. 

Winter Feeding of Dairy Cows. — The cows are fed in the 
stable during one-half of the year, or more in the North, and, as 
the system of feeding during this period is necessarily most ex- 
pensive, the profit of the dairy will depend, to a large extent, on 
the economy of the winter feeding. Economical feeding in cases 
of good dairy cows does not mean scant supplies, but the kind of 
feeds and feed combinations that will be likely to produce best re- 
sults for the least money. Only cows that respond to liberal feed- 
ing and are fed liberally will prove profitable dairy animals. 

Succulent feeds should be provided for dairy cows during their 
entire lactation period whenever possible; silage and roots are the 
main available feeds of this character during the winter period, 
and in corn-growing sections, at least, the former has been found 
to yield the largest and cheapest amounts of feed materials per 
unit of area. Roots are, however, valuable substitutes where, there 
is no silo on the farm; they are fed especially in Canada and by 
farmers who adhere more or less to European methods of agri- 
culture. In the case of heavy producers and cows " out of condi- 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 245 

tion,'' roots are often feci to animals on account of their dietetic 
effect, as appetizers, and because of their favorable influence on the 
digestion. 

The silo enables dairy farmers to utilize the large supply of 
feed materials in the corn plant with the least possible loss and 
expense. For this reason, and because of the advantage of having 
a palatable, highly nutritious and relished succulent feed conve- 
niently at hand throughout the season, the silo is now generally 
regarded as next to a necessity on dairy farms, at least where corn 
is grown. The whole corn plant, ears and all, is, as a rule, run 
through a feed cutter, this having been found the most economical 
method of handling the crop. The corn is harvested when nearly 
ripe, and cut into one-half to three-fourth inch lengths in filling 
the silo (p. 156). 

Silage is greatly relished by cows and can be fed in large quanti- 
ties, if made from nearly-matured corn. Ordinarily, the best re- 
sults are obtained when not over 30 to 40 pounds of corn silage 
are fed per head daily, according to the size of the cows, and it is 
always fed with some dry roughage, either hay or corn fodder. 
Since the corn plant is rich in carbohydrates, protein feeds like 
clover hay, wheat bran, or oil meal should always be fed with corn 
silage or corn fodder. Clover silage, or silage made from alfalfa, 
grain sorghums, etc., is fed in somewhat smaller quantities than 
corn silage, the daily allowance being less than 25 to 30 pounds per 
head. 

Dry Roughage. — Hay from the grasses or legumes is a common 
coarse cow feed in this and other dairy countries. Early-cut hay is 
more valuable, ton for ton, than late-cut, but the yield obtained will 
be somewhat lower in the former case. Clover hay, or hay of other 
legumes, stands first in value as dry roughage for dairy cows (Fig. 
50). It is preferably fed long. Pure timothy hay is a poor cow 
feed, especially if late-cut; mixed timothy and clover hay is the 
more valuable for cows the less timothy it contains. Other kinds 
of hay that are fed and relished by dairy stock are oat hay, millet 
hay, sorghum hay, pea hay, etc. Corn stover (cornstalks) and 
corn fodder are fed whole or are cut or shredded on the best-managed 
farms after having been shocked in the field (p. 129). 

Straw of the small grains is not often fed to dairy cows in this 
country, as we have an abundant and cheap supply of roughage in 
cornstalks. Where a quantity of fine, bright oat straw is available, 
it may be fed in moderate quantities, not to exceed one-half the 
weight of total dry roughage fed. 



246 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Concentrates. — The common concentrates used on American 
dairy farms are cereals and mill-refuse feeds, starch or glucose ref- 
use feeds, brewers' and distillers" feeds, and oil meals, especially 
linseed and cotton-seed meals. The amounts of these feeds that 
can be fed to dairy cows with profit will depend upon the price of 
the feeds, the production of the cows, and the prices obtained 
for the dairy products. In general, the carbohydrates of feed 
rations are supplied by farm-grown crops, while nitrogenous feeds 
are largely purchased, except when leguminous crops are grown. 
By the culture of crops of the latter class the amount of protein 
feeds that it will be necessary to purchase will be reduced to a 
minimum. Bran may be partially replaced, nearly ton for ton, by 
carefully-cured alfalfa hay, or by six tons of pea-vine silage to 




Fig. 50. — -Alfalfa is, as a rule, fed in racks in the corrals (feeding yards) to milch cows in 
the Western States. 

five of bran. Roughly speaking, the cereals may be considered 
of equal feeding value for dairy cows, and of similar value to bran 
or shorts, in rations as ordinarily fed. Cotton-seed meal, gluten 
meal, and linseed meal likewise possess nearly equal value, with the 
first two feeds occasionally ahead. The comparative value of feed- 
ing stuffs depends, however, to a large extent on the combination 
in which they are fed, a starchy feed being of greater value to a 
farmer having a good supj)ly of protein feeds than to one who has 
mainly starchy feeds to select from. The feed-unit system fur- 
nishes a convenient and very satisfactory method of comparing 
the value of different kinds of feeds for dairy cows (p. 79). 

The quantities of grain feeds fed by American dairy farmers 
vary considerably, from a few pounds to fifteen or more pounds 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



247 



per head daily (Figs. 5] and 52). Only exceptionally large pro- 
ducers will give good returns for more than six or eight pounds of 
grain feed daily, with abundant roughage of good quality at hand. 
A common rule is to feed as many pounds of grain feeds a day per 
head as the cows produce pounds of hutter fat during the week, 
and to feed as much roughage in addition as they will eat up 
clean. 




Fig. 51. — The "meal cart" used for weighing concentrates for the individual cows in the 
herd. (Ottawa Station.) 



Rations for Dairy Cows. — It is important, in making up 

rations for dairy cows, as for other classes of farm animals, to see 
to it that a liheral amount of easily digestible substances is sup- 
plied; nearly one-half of the dry matter of the ration should be 
given in the form of concentrated feeds in case of milch cows, the 
amount fed being governed primarily by the production of the 
cows. Xo moldy or decayed feeds should be fed, and, in the case of 
wet feeds, particular attention must be given to keeping clean the 
mangers and the premises aboul the stable. A variety of feeds is 



248 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



always fed, often as many as half a dozen different ones, so as to 
stimulate the appetites of the cows; the modern dairy cow is a 
product of special-purpose breeding and high feeding, and, unless 
special pains is taken to cater to her wants, she will not be able to 
reach and maintain the high standard of production which may be 
reasonably expected of her (Figs. 53, 54, 55, and 56). 

The following rations for milch cows are given as samples of 
the system of feeding adapted to the conditions in different sections 
of our country : 

1. Hay, 20 pounds; oats, 3 pounds; corn and cob meal, 3 
pounds; linseed meal, 2 pounds. 




Fig. 52. — Weighing rations for the dairy herd. The cows receive seven pounds of grain per 
pound of butter fat produced. (Wisconsin Station.) 

2. Hay, 10 pounds; cornstalks, ad lib.; wheat bran, 3 pounds; 
corn meal, 2 pounds; cotton-seed meal, 2 pounds. 

3. Roots, 60 pounds; stover, ad lib.; oats, 3 pounds; bran, 3 
pounds; gluten feed, 3 pounds. 

4. Corn fodder, ad lib.; corn silage, 40 pounds ; shorts, 2 pounds ; 
dried brewers' grains, 2 pounds; linseed meal, 2 pounds. 

5. Corn silage, 35 pounds; hay, ad lib.; bran, 4 pounds; oats, 
2 pounds; gluten meal, 2 pounds. 

6. Corn silage, 30 pounds; hay, ad lib.; oats, 4 pounds; linseed 
meal, 2 pounds ; cotton-seed meal, 1 pound. 

7. Corn silage, 30 pounds; clover hay, ad lib.; bran, oats, and 
corn meal, 2 jDounds each. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 



249 




Fig. 53.— Yeksa Sunbeam, No. 15439, Guernsey. The first cow to produce the equiva- 
lent to 1000 pounds of butter in one year on a semi-official test. Record, 14,920.8 pounds 
milk, S57.15 pounds butter fat; average test, 4.74 per cent. 




Fig. 54.— Colantha 4th Johanna, No. 48577, Holstein. The first cow to produce over 
4 pounds butter fat daily in a 7-day official test and close to 1000 pounds butter fat in one 
year on a semi-official test. Record, 27,432.5 pounds milk, 998.26 pounds butter fat, equiv- 
alent to about 11(35 pounds commercial butter; average test, 3.64 per cent. 



250 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 




Yi G 55 May Rilma No 22761, Guernsey, holds the record for highest production 

of butter fat by a dairy cow for one year (1914): 1073.41 pounds butter fat from 19,673 
pounds milk; average test, 5.46 per cent. 




Fig 56.— Tilly Alcartra, No. 123459, Holstein, holds the record for the highest pro- 
duction of milk for one year by a dairy cow: 30,451.4 pounds milk, 951.2 pounds butter fat. 
average test, 3.12 per cent. 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 251 

8. Clover silage, 25 pounds; hay, 5 pounds; cornstalks, ad lib.; 
oats, 3 pounds; corn meal and linseed meal, 2 pounds each. 

9. Clover or alfalfa silage, 30 pounds; hay, ad lib.; bran, 4 
pounds; middlings, 3 pounds; linseed meal, 1 pound. 

10. Alfalfa hay, 20 pounds; oats, -4 pounds; corn meal, 2 pounds. 

11. Hay, 20 pounds; cotton-seed hulls, 10 pounds; cotton-seed 
meal, i pounds; wheat bran, 2 pounds. 

12. Corn silage, 40 pounds; alfalfa hay, 25 pounds; barley, -4 
pounds; dried beet pulp, 3 pounds; wheat bran, 2 pounds. 

13. Corn silage, 30 pounds; cotton-seed hulls, 12 pounds; bran, 
6 pounds; cotton-seed meal, 3 pounds. 

The time of feeding is also important. The feeding should 
be as regular as the milking. Many farmers feed either hay or 
grain feeds directly before or during milking, but this is not, as a 
rule, to be recommended, both on account of the tendency it has 
to interfere with the letting-down of the milk, and the danger of 
contamination of the milk with dust and bacteria that it involves, 
especially when hay is fed directly before or during the milking. 

A good order of the day's work in the dairy barn during the 
winter is as follows: Cleaning gutters, watering, feeding hay, 
grooming, and cleaning cows, milking, feeding grain, feeding 
silage, turning out in tbc yard (on pleasant days for one or two 
hours in the early afternoon), watering, cleaning stable, feeding 
grain, cleaning cows, milking, feeding silage, a last feed of hay 
if desired, and arranging bedding. 

Feeding the Dairy Bull. — The bull at the head of a dairy 
herd should receive a large share of his feed in the shape of dry 
roughage, hay from the grasses or legumes, cornstalks, etc., with 
only limited amounts of concentrated feeds. Of the latter, wheat 
bran, shorts, oats, and a little corn meal are to be preferred. Roots 
are good as a relish, while corn silage and other kinds of silage 
should be fed very sparingly to breeding bulls. Fattening feeds 
and excessive grain feeding should be avoided, so that the animal 
may be kept in a vigorous, active condition. Corn and other fat- 
tening feeds are, for this reason, to be fed with care ; high feed- 
ing and lack of exercise are common causes of impotency in bulls; 
a wrong system of feeding and management lias been the cause of 
shortening the period of usefulness of many bulls. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the average composition of cow's milk. 

2. State ten factors that influence the milk secretion of cows. 

.'!. What is the effect of (c) excitement, (b) time of milking, (c) condition 
of the cow, on the quality of the milk secreted! 



252 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

4. Name the six most important dairy breeds in this country. 

5. State the relative rank of these breeds as regards (a) yield of milk, (b) 

yield of butter fat, (c) per cent of fat, (d) feed cost per pound of 
butter fat, according to experiment station trials. 

6. What is the normal decrease in the production of milk and butter fat 

for good dairy cows due to the advance of the lactation period ? 

7. How does the feed influence (fl) the quality, (b) the yield of milk? 

8. What method would you follow for the improvement of the production 

of the dairy herd? 

9. Give the approximate amounts of dry roughage, succulent feeds, pasture, 

concentrates eaten by a good dairy cow in the northern States during 
the year. ' 

10. State how the Wolff-Lehmann standards for milch cows have been modi- 
fied by Haecker. 

11. Give the modified figures for the Armsby standard for milch cows as 

suggested by Eckles. 

12. Describe briefly the system of feeding the dairy heifer. 

13. Describe briefly the system of feeding dairy cows in your locality (a) 
during the summer, {b) during the winter months. 

14. Criticise the following rations for dairy cows, and state how they may be 

changed to conform to the standards for dairy cows: 

(a) 20 pounds cornstalks, 10 pounds timothy hay, (i pounds corn meal. 

( b) 20 pounds mixed hay, 5 pounds oats, 3 pounds corn meal. 

(c) 25 pounds alfalfa hay. 

(d) 40 pounds green alfalfa, 20 pounds alfalfa hay. 

(e) 50 pounds green corn fodder, 3 pounds each of wheat bran, dry 
brewers' grains, and oil meal. 

if) 30 pounds corn silage, 10 pounds cornstalks, 4 pounds corn meal, 
and 2 pounds oil meal. 

Literature on Feeding Dairy Cattle. — Eckles, " Dairy Cattle and 
Milk Production," New York, 1014. Shaw, " Management and Feeding of 
Cattle," New York, 1914. Murray, "The Chemistry of Cattle Feeding and 
Dairying," London, 1914. Housman, " Cattle, Breeds and Management," 
London, 1905 (see also p. 226). Alvord, " The Dairy Herd," Farmers' Bulle- 
tin 55, 1904. Haecker, " Feeding Dairy Cows," Minnesota Bulletin 130, May, 
1913. Kildee, " Care, Feed and Management of the Dairy Herd," Iowa 
Circular l(i, March, 1914. 

Experiment /Station Bulletins (b). Circulars (c), and Reports (r). — 
Alabama, b. 123, 174; Colorado, b. 73; Connecticut (Storrs), r. '04; 
Florida, b. 102; Georgia, b. 49; Iowa, c. 10; Kansas, b. 93, 125; r. '88; 
Maine, r. '95, '09; Maryland, b. 84, 98; Massachusetts (Hatch), r. '94, 
'05, '08, '09, '11; b. 50, 94, 95; Minnesota, 35, G7, 130, 140; Missouri res. b. 
7; Mississippi, b. 60, 70; r. '91, '95, '03; Nebraska, b. 44, 76; New Jersey, r. 
'82, '85, '98, '03, '04, '07; b. 122, 123, 161, 174, 189, 190, 204; New 
Mexico r. '04; New York (Cornell), b. 13, 22, 36, 49, 183, 268, 323; New 
Y'ork (Geneva), b. 141; North Carolina, b. 77; North Dakota, b. 16; Ohio, c. 
128; b. 155; Oregon, c. 5; Pennsylvania, b. 41, 52, 73, 80, 114; r. '81, '92, '!):>; 
Rhode Island, b. 77; South Carolina, b. 06, 117; South Dakota, b. 81; 
Tennessee, b. 80; vol. 17, No. 4; 15, No. 4; Texas, b. 47; Utah, b. US; 
Virginia, b. 148, 156; Vermont, b. 164; r. '92, '95, '01, '03, '04, '06. '07; West 
Virginia, b. 109; Wisconsin, b. 33, 38, 102, 116, 117, 200, 235; r. '84, '90, '05. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 

Rations for Beef Cattle. — Feeding standards should be fol- 
lowed in preparing rations for beef cattle. 

The Wolff-Lehmann Standards — 1000 pounds live iveight 



For growing cattle 

For growing cattle 

For fattening cattle, first 
period 

For fattening cattle, sec- 
ond period 

For fattening cattle, third 
period 



Age, 

months 



12-18 
18-2 : 



Live 

weight, 
pounds 



750 
935 



Dry 

matter, 
pounds 



24 
24 

30 

30 

26 



Digestible 



Protein 



2.0 

1.8 

2.5f 
3.0t 

2.7t 



Carbo- 
hydrates 

and fat* 



13.6 
12.9 

16.3 

16.1 

16.6 



X. R. 



1 : 6.8 
1 : 7.2 

1 : 6.5 

1 : 5.4 

1:6.2 



* Given separately by W.-L. t Doubtless too high. 

The Armsby Standards 



For growing cattle 

For fattening cattle per pound gain . . 



Age, 
months 



Live 

weight, 
pounds 



18 
24 
30 



850 
1000 
1100 



Digestible 

true 

protein, 

pounds 



1.70 
1.75 
1.65 



Energy 

value, 
therms 



7.5 
8.0 
8.0 
3.5 



Systems of Feeding Beef Cattle. — There are two different sys- 
tems followed in feeding beef cattle in this country. The cattle 
are either raised and fattened on the same farms, as is generally 
done in the farming and grain-growing districts, especially the 
corn belt, or they are raised and fattened in different regions. In 
the latter case, they are raised and fed until maturity mainly in 
the grazing districts of the western and southwestern States and 
then shipped to grain- or forage-growing regions to be fattened for 
market. The relative importance of the two systems may be in- 

253 



254 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



f erred from the accompanying map (Fig. 57), 1 showing the number 
and value of cattle other than milch cows according to the census of 
1910. The seven corn belt States had about one-third of the total 




[\\\\\N FAR WESTERN 

BBJB NORTH ATLANTIC 

l lllll llll SOUTH ATLANTIC 

I I NORTH CENTRAL— EAST 

I I NORTH CENTRAL— WEST 

■■ SOUTHERN AND GULP 



Fig. 57. — The number and value of cattle other than milch cows in the United States, 
April 15, 1910. (Mumford and Hall). 

number of cattle other than milch cows in the United States (Fig. 
58) ; considering the immense number of cattle brought in to be 
fattened there, perhaps not less than one-half of the beef cattle 




Fig. 58. — Number of beef cattle in the corn belt States, 1913. About one-third of the 
cattle other than milch cows in the country are kept in these States, and their value is equal 
to about two-fifths of the total value of such cattle in the United States. (Mumford and 
Hall, Illinois Circular 175.) 



1 Reproduced from Illinois Circular 169. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 



255 



industry is centered in this section. The Far West section, on the 
other hand, furnished nearly one-fifth of the total number of cattle 
other than milch cows, which were largely raised and fattened by 
different owners. 

With the passing of the public grazing domain and the gradual 
opening up of the range country in the western States to farmers, 
the second system is slowly giving way to the former; this implies, 
as we shall see, important changes also in the methods of feeding 
adopted. Farmers who raise and fatten their own cattle live in 
agriculturally well-developed States where land is high priced and 



MILLIONS 10 



1890 



20 30 



50 60 



90 100 




1900 



Fig. 59. — From 1S90 to 1910 the number of cattle in this country increased from 
53,000,000 to 69,000,000, an increase of 30 per cent., and 'the population increased from 
63,000,000 to 92,000,000, an increase of about 46 per cent. The ratio of cattle to popula- 
tion was, in 1890, 100 : 84, and in- 1910, 100 : 67. 



feeding operations expensive, and they must, therefore, get the 
cattle ready for market in shorter time than is necessary for the 
cattle men on the western plains and ranges. The latter occupy 
large areas of cheap lands and can keep cattle at a relatively low 
cost, so that it is not so important whether they are marketed at 
three or four years of age. The farmer in the eastern and central 
States can produce beef profitably only by keeping stock of the 
improved beef breeds or using pure-bred beef bulls and giving the 
cattle good care and attention ; they must also be fed with a view to 
being marketed at an early age, either as baby beef, yearlings, or 
two-year-olds (Fig. 59). 



256 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Growth and Fattening. — Before considering the method of 
feeding to be followed in the production of different kinds of steers, 
it will be necessary to discuss briefly some phases of the general 
laws of beef production. Beef production, as production of meat in 
general, includes two more or less distinct processes : Growth and 
fattening. The growth of animals takes place from birth to ma- 
turity, and consists essentially in an increase in the protein tissues 
of the body and the bone structure, etc. (p. 20). At the same time 
there is an accumulation of body fat that will vary according to 
the character and quantity of feed eaten. The production of pro- 
tein tissues can be modified to a certain extent by the feed, but it 
appears to be mainly a function of the animal and is determined 
by its individuality and breeding. Growth is most active in the 
young, and gradually diminishes as the animal grows older, until 
it practically ceases in the mature animal. 

Fattening, on the other hand, can take place at any age; it 
accompanies the production of protein tissues in the growing ani- 
mal, especially if this is fed in liberal amounts with fattening feeds, 
but, as a rule, it goes on most rapidly from the time the animal has 
made its growth, when there is a greater surplus of feed materials 
available after the maintenance requirements of the body have been 
met. The fattening process is, therefore, in the main determined 
by the amount of feed which the animal receives and can digest in 
excess of that required for maintenance and growth, or for main- 
tenance only, in the case of mature animals. 

The processes of growth and fattening may, as suggested, be 
going on at the same time in the animal body. A calf or yearling, 
if gaining in weight, is always laying on fat, and a two-year-old 
may mature to some extent while being fattened. The fattening 
process improves the quality and flavor of the meat and makes it 
tender and juicy; this comes through a deposition of fat between 
the muscle tissue, and an increase of the extractives of the meat. The 
accumulation of fat about the internal organs and below the skin is 
incidental to the improvement of the meat by the fattening process 
and represents a certain value, but animals are fattened primarily 
to increase the tenderness and palatability of the meat, and not for 
the purpose of obtaining large amounts of internal fat and thick 
layers of fat about the body. 

Composition of Increase in Fattening. — The results of early 
experiments at the Eothamsted station by Lawes and Gilbert show 
that an increase in body substance, even in young animals, consists, 
to a large extent, of pure fat. Jordan gives the following average 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 



257 



figures for the composition of the increase in weight of young and 
mature fattening steers, the results shown in the first two lines 
being obtained in English experiments and those in the third line 
in American experiments : 

Composition of Increase in Fattening Steers, in Per Cent 



Oxen fattened very young 

Mature animals, final period 

Well-fed steers, growth from 17 to 27 
months of age 



Dry 

matter 


Ash 


Protein 


63 to 68 
70 to 75 

57.6 


2.25 
1.5 

6.0 


10 

7 to 8 

14.1 



Fat 



50 to 55 
60 to 65 

37.5 



Even in animals that were fattened while very young, 37.5 to 
50 per cent of the increase in body weight consisted of fat, 32 to 42 
per cent was water, and 10 to 14 per cent consisted of protein. 
With mature animals, on the other hand, 60 to 65 per cent of the 
increase was fat, 25 to 30 per cent was water, and only 7 to 8 per 
cent protein. This suggests that a large supply of protein to fatten- 
ing animals is not all-important, as was formerly considered the 
case. Practical feeding experience has shown that fattening animals 
require only a small amount of protein for making good gains so 
long as they receive plenty of digestible nutrients in their feed. 

Protein Requirements. — The approximate protein require- 
ments of cattle have been formulated by Armsby as follows, from 
the results of a considerable number of experiments ; given in pounds 
of digestible protein per thousand pounds live weight. 

1 to 3 months old, 4.8 to 3.5 pounds. 

1 to l 1 /^ years old, 2.0 pounds. 

2 years old, 1.75 pounds. 
2% years old, 1.5 pounds. 

In mature fattening animals the protein requirements are very 
small, as the formation of muscular tissue in these animals has 
practically ceased and protein is mainly required for repair of the 
body tissues. 

Since the protein requirements for fattening animals are much 
lower than previously held necessary, the nutritive ratio of the 
rations fed may be much wider than that given by Wolff-Lehmann. 
Careful experiments have shown that the nutritive ratio of fatten- 
ing rations may range from 1 : 4 to 1 : 10 without affecting the gain 
in body weight per unit of digestible matter eaten, provided the 
feed supplied above maintenance be furnished by easily digestible 
17 



258 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

feeding stuffs (concentrates or roots). With a wider ratio than 
1 : 10, there will be a depression in the digestibility of the nutrients, 
and lower results will be obtained than if the ration contained a 
larger amount of protein (p. 69). It was formerly believed that 
the protein in the feed was the source of fat in the body, but it has 
now being established, mainly through the investigations of German 
scientists, as well as by the results of practical tests, that the carbo- 
hydrates of the feed are the main sources of the body fat; protein 
has not, therefore, the importance in the feeding of fattening ani- 
mals as was previously taught, and the Wolff-Lehmann standards 
for fattening cattle are now largely of historical interest only: 
They call for more protein and narrower nutritive ratio than neces- 
sary, as well as for excessive amounts of total dry substance and 
digestible nutrients, as has been shown by Jordan. 2 According to 
the latter authority, it seems evident that " under proper condi- 
tions 8 to 10 pounds of dry coarse feed and 15 to 18 pounds of 
grain are all that can generally be fed with greatest profit to a steer 
actually weighing 1000 pounds, and may be even more than is 
utilized by the animal to the best advantage. Such a ration would 
supply about 16 pounds of digestible organic matter." 

Rate of Increase. — The rate of increase is more rapid in young 
than in older animals; it is also most rapid in the early stages of 
the fattening, and gradually diminishes toward the close of the 
period, when the animals reach the condition known as " finished." 

The rate of gain calculated from statistics covering feeding 
experiments " with more than 50,000 cattle of different ages " is 
given as follows by Wilcox : 3 

Average Daily (lain in Young and Old Cattle. 

%-year-old 2.3 pounds. 

1% -year-old 2.09 pounds. 

2% -year-old 1.58 pounds. 

3y 3 -year-old 1.44 pounds. 

4% -year-old 1.2 pounds. 

The cost of 100 pounds gain produced with calves was $4.98; 
yearlings, $7.23 ; two-year-olds, $7.45 ; three-year-olds, $13.75. 

The cheapest returns in gain in body weight for the feed eaten 
are obtained with young animals, because the nutritive processes 
are especially active in young life and a larger proportion of the 
increase is water in these animals than in mature ones. Accord- 
ing to Professor Smith, of Minnesota Agricultural College, a two- 

2 " The Feeding of Animals," p. 345. 

3 " Country Life in America," July, 1905. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 



259 



year-old steer will require approximately one-third more feed for 
a given gain in weight than will the yearling, and the three-year-old 
one-third more than the two-year-old. 4 While fattening young ani- 
mals bring quicker and larger returns than older stock, under 
otherwise similar conditions, there are special difficulties connected 
with the fattening of young stock. It requires more skill and care 
on the part of the feeder to obtain satisfactory rapid gains with 
young stock. They require heavier grain feeding than older ani- 
mals, and the chances for accidents are greater than with these. 

Results at Smithfield Show. — The relation between the age of 
fattening steers, the average daily gain, and the percentage dressed 
weight is shown in the following table for one-, two-, and three- 
year-olds of seven different beef breeds slaughtered at the Smith- 
field, England, Fat Stock Show in 1888-1895: 5 

Average Data for Steers Slaughtered at the Smithfield Fat Stock Show, 1888-1895 





Number 
of 

animals 


Daily 

gain, 

pounds 


Average 
live 

weight, 
pounds 


Per cent 
dressed 

weight 


One-year-olds. . . . 
Two-year-olds .... 
Three-year-olds. . . 


77 

108 

64 


2.01 
1.74 
1.56 


1329 
1744 
2055 


65.5 
67.1 
67.9 



The average daily rate of gain was higher with the yearlings 
than with the two-year-olds in case of all the breeds, and the daily 
gain made by the two-year-olds higher than that of the three-year- 
olds. The percentage dressed weight, on the other hand, was 
lowest for the yearlings, the two-year-olds being next, and the 
three-year-olds highest. We note that the yearlings gained 2.01 
pounds, on the average, for each day of the fattening period ; the 
two-year-olds, 1.74 pounds, and the three-year-olds, 1.56, and that 
the percentage dressed weights of the three classes of steers were 
G5.5, 67.1, and 67.9 per cent, for yearlings, two-, and three-year-olds, 
respectively. 

Results at American Fat Stock Show. — The records of the 
American Fat Stock Show (precursor of the " International ") for 
animals exhibited in the various classes have been compiled by 
Stewart for the years 1878-1885.° Summary figures are given in 

4 Cyclopedia American Agriculture, vol. iii, p. 318; these figures doubt- 
less refer especially to the corn belt. 

"' Reported annually in the Live Stock Journal and Agricultural Gazette, 
London: from a compilation by Henry. 

" Feeding Animals," 3rd ed., p. 530. 



260 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



the following table for gain for steers of different ages, and also 
for the gain for each successive group: 

Relation of Age to Weight and Daily Gain of Steers 





Number 
of steers 


Average 
age, days 


Average 

live 
weight, 
pounds 


Gain 
per day, 
pounds 


Gain per period, 
pounds 


Classes of steers 


Total 


Daily 


Calves 

Yearlings 

Two-year-olds 

Three-year-olds. . . . 


30 
152 
145 
133 


297 

612 

943 

1283 


780 
1334 
1639 
1938 


2.63 
2.18 
1.74 
1.51 


780 

554 
305 
299 


2.63 

1.76 

.92 

.87 



The figures show a decided decrease in the rate of daily gain 
with increasing age of the steers, and also a still more marked de- 
crease in the gain for each period, viz., from 2.63 pounds for the 
calves to 0.87 pound for the last year of the three-year-olds. 

The results given in the last two tables were obtained with 



NUMBER OF 
DAYS FEEDING 


100 200 500 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 


56 
84 
112 
140 
168 
182 



































































































































Fig. 60. — The amount of grain required to produce a hundred pounds of gain in 
fattening steers increases with the range of the feeding period from about 730 pounds to 
1000 pounds. (Kansas Station.) 

cattle of the specific beef breeds and of choice individuals within 
these breeds. They are, therefore, higher than are likely to obtain 
with steers of poorer breeding and fed less intensively (Fig. 60). 
The percentage dressed weight of cattle in thin body flesh will 
generally come from 54 to 58 per cent, and for fattening steers 58 
to 65 per cent or better, according to the breed and degree of finish. 
The percentage dressed weight of steers but rarely exceeds 70 per 
cent. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 261 

Cattle Markets. — The largest central cattle markets in the 
country were located in 1910 as follows: Chicago (over 3,000,000 
cattle received during the year), Kansas City (2,250,000), Omaha 
and St. Louis (both about 1,250,000), Fort Worth, Texas, New 
York, and St. Joseph, Mo. (decreasing, in the order given, from 
1,000,000 to 500,000). Other important cattle markets are St. 
Paul, Sioux City, Denver, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Buffalo, etc. 
The relative importance of these markets will doubtless change with 
the further development of our cattle industry, since cattle markets 
follow in the wake of the producing areas; western cattle markets 
have developed rapidly during the last few decades, while the 
eastern markets have in general declined. 7 

Shrinkage of Cattle. — When cattle are sold a certain deduction 
is generally made for the " shrink " in weight between the place 
where sold and marketed. This allows for the loss in weight that 
occurs during transportation, and varies according to the distance 
travelled and methods of transportation, as well as the system of 
feeding and handling of the cattle prior to shipping. The shrinkage 
is generally figured at 3 to 4 per cent. On a 1000-pound steer this 
will mean a deduction of 30 or 40 pounds for which no pay is 
received. The United States Department of Agriculture, in recent 
investigations of the shrinkage in weight of beef cattle in transit, 8 
made careful studies of the various factors that influence the shrink- 
age. It was found that the shrinkage of range cattle in transit 
over 70 hours during a normal year is from 5 to 6 per cent of their 
live weight. If they are in transit 36 hours or less, the shrinkage 
will range from 3 to 4 per cent of their live weight. The shrinkage 
of fed cattle does not differ greatly from that of range cattle for 
equal periods of time. It varied from about 3 per cent with all of 
the silage-fed cattle and 4.2 per cent with the corn-fed cattle when 
both classes of these animals were in transit for less than 36 hours, to 
5.4 per cent for the pulp-fed cattle which were in transit from 60 
to 120 hours. 

The Spread or Margin. — The profit in beef raising depends 
not only on the gains made by steers during fattening period, but 
fully as much on the price at which the steers are bought and sold. 
The difference in the latter two figures is known as " spread " or 
" margin " ; this is given per hundredweight or pound. If feed- 
ing cattle are bought at, say, 6 cents a pound and sold at the end 
of the fattening period at 7 cents, there is a margin of 1 cent per 

7 Illinois Circular 1G9. 8 Bulletin 25. 



262 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



pound, or $1.00 per hundredweight. As the feed consumed by the 
steers frequently costs more than the value of the gain secured, it 
is important, in order to " break even," that there be a certain 
margin of profit. This may vary from y 2 to 1% cents per pound. 
Unless the feeder gets the benefit of the improvement in quality that 
occurs through the fattening process, he is not likely to come out 
even, and it is evident that the better he buys, the smaller margin 
will be required to make the feeding profitable ; hence the old say- 
ing among stockmen, that " Cattle bought right are more than 
half sold." 

The margin depends on at least five factors : The purchase 
price, the weight of animals bought, the gains made, the cost of the 
feed eaten, and the selling price. The manner in which each of 
these factors influences the profit of the feeding operations will be 
readily seen on reflection. 

Cost of Feeding Beef Cattle. — The proportionate cost of the 
various expenses incurred in cattle feeding on twenty-four Iowa 
farms, as determined by the U. S. Department of Agriculture dur- 
ing 1909-1911, is shown in the following table. The figures given 
indicate in a general way the importance of the various expenses in 
feeding cattle, at least in the corn belt. 9 



Percentage of Various Expenses Incurred in Cattle Feeding on 24 Iowa Farms 





Purchase 
price* 


Feed 


Interest 

at 6 per 

cent 


Labor 


Shipping 

and 
sellingf 


Total 


1909-1910 

1910-1911 


55.8 
59.8 

57.8 


36.9 
31.8 


1.3 

1.8 

1.6 


1.6 
1.8 

1.7 


4.4 
4.7 

4.6 


100 
100 


Average for both years 


34.3 


100 



* Delivered at farm (including freight and incidental charges), t Excess in shrinkage. 

It will be seen that the purchase price was more than one-half 
(57.8 per cent) of the total cost of the feeding, and that the feed 
cost came next, with about one-third (34.3 per cent) of the total 
expenses. These two items make up over 90 per cent of the expense 
of cattle feeding as practised on these farms, and the financial results 
of the feeding operations will, therefore, be determined largely by 
them and by the selling price of the steers. Waters 10 found that an 
average margin of $1.02 was required to cover the entire cost of 



9 Farmers' Bulletin 588. 
"Missouri Bulletin 76; see also Purdue 



;ind.) Circular 12. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 



263 



fattening cattle in summer, in case of feeders in the Mississippi 
valley, and that a margin of $1.50 per hundredweight is necessary 
for six months' winter feeding with two-year-olds. Data obtained 
by the Purdue (Indiana) station in the same way showed that an 
average spread of $1.07 was required to break even under Indiana 
conditions, and that it cost cattle men in that State $4.80 per 
hundredweight gains in summer and $7.20 for gains in winter. 

Length of Feeding Period. — This will vary from sixty days 
to a year, according to a number of conditions, as kind of stock, 
cost of feed, and market conditions. The various factors affecting 
the length of the fattening period are succinctly stated as follows 




Fig. 61. — -Tennessee steers in the feed lot. (Tennessee Station.) 

by Mumford. 11 " The principal factors affecting the length of the 
feeding period are : Method of feeding, grade, condition, and age 
of feeding cattle used. 

"Method of Feeding. — Where it is desired to feed a ration in 
which there is a large proportion of roughage to grain, the fatten- 
ing process is slow. On the other hand, the feeding of large pro- 
portions of grain to roughage, or, in other words, the feeding of 
a highly-concentrated ration, usually shortens the fattening period. 
Forced feeding on highly-concentrated rations required for quick 
finish is, of course, more hazardous than the longer feeding period 
with the more bulky ration. A compromise between the two some- 
what radical methods has been practised with excellent results. 
This compromise method is as follows: For winter fattening 

11 " Beef Production," p. 100. 



264 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



1000-pound feeders in a six months' period, use thirty to sixty days 
for getting cattle to full grain ration, allowing free access to all 
the roughage the cattle will take at the beginning, and gradually 
decreasing the amount of roughage as the grain is increased. With 
two- and three-year-old cattle that are finished on grass, 120 days 
of full feeding are usually sufficient to put such cattle in satisfactory 
marketable condition after they have been carried sixty to ninety 
days on light grain rations. 

" Grade and Condition of Feeding Cattle Used. — The quality or 
breeding of the cattle has a direct bearing upon the proper length 
of the fattening period. Common cattle of the lower grades and 
plainer sorts are not susceptible to the same high finish that can be 
given well-bred cattle, hence it is useless to feed them for it. Low- 
grade feeders finish quicker than those of high grade at the same 
weights and in the same condition, because they are older (Fig. 61). 

"Age of Feeding Cattle Used. — In ordinary practice it takes 
three to four months to finish mature feeders, five to seven months 
for two-year-olds, eight to ten months for yearlings, and ten to 
eighteen months for calves." 

Returns for Feed Eaten. — Information secured from cattle 
men in the corn belt by the Illinois station shows that the amounts 
of grain (corn or its equivalent) and hay required to produce 100 
pounds gain in case of steers of different ages in winter and summer 
are, on the average, as follows: 12 

Feed Required for 100 Pounds Gain with Steers of Different Ages 





Pounds 

gain 

produced 

from one 

bushel 

corn 


Per 100 pounds gain 


Hay, 
pounds 


Grain 

feed, 

pounds 


Calves, winter 


8.9 
10.0 
6.5 
7.6 
5.4 
6.8 


378 
267 
517 
219 
473 
129 


630 

577 
857 
734 
1036 
818 


Calves, summer 

Yearlings, winter 

Yearlings, summer 

Two-year-olds, winter. . . 
Two-year-olds, summer. . 



According to a common rule of feeders, it takes 1000 pounds 
grain and 500 pounds rough feed per 100 pounds gain in the feed 
lot; the averages of the returns on which the preceding data are 
based are 924 pounds grain and 428 pounds of roughage, showing 
that this rule gives a somewhat liberal allowance of feed 13 (Fig. 60). 



12 Illinois Circular 



13 Loc. cit. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 265 

Pasture for Steer Feeding. — The profit made in feeding steers 
will depend largely on the kind and quality of the available pasture. 
Steers make their cheapest gains during the summer on grass, but 
grass-fed cattle do not bring the prices that those fed corn or other 
concentrates command, and if they are to be sold on the large 
markets they should receive grain in addition, especially later in the 
season, when the pastures no longer furnish abundant feed. It is 
important not to overstock the pastures so that they will be eaten 
too closely to furnish ample feed for the steers. On an average, 
one and one-half to two acres should be allowed for each 20 head 
of cattle, to secure a sufficient supply of feed throughout the sea- 
son. When grain is fed to cattle on pasture, the area of land re- 
quired for each lot of steers may be reduced to one or one and one- 
half acres. The gains made on pasture are also dependent on the 
method of winter feeding practised. If the cattle have been win- 
tered largely on rough feeds and have been accustomed to depend on 
roughage for nourishment, they will be better able to make satis- 
factory gains on pasture alone, but whether they should be marketed 
as grass-fed must depend largely on the condition of the market. 
The gains made by cattle on pasture will range from one and one- 
half to two pounds a day. Waters reports 14 that successful cattle 
men in Missouri, Illinois, and Iowa obtained the following gains 
for the season of six months: From yearlings, 270 to 288 pounds; 
for two-year-olds, 312 to 318 pounds. If a charge of 75 cents a 
month be made for yearlings on pasture, their gains cost approxi- 
mately $1.60 per hundredweight, and the charges for two-year- 
olds $1 a month for the season, the gains they put on cost about 
$1.90 per hundredweight. Gains made on winter feeding, on the 
other hand, will cost at least $6 per hundredweight, and may be 
double this amount; the relative cheapness of pasture feeding when 
good gains are made is apparent from these figures. 

Silage for Steers. — The number of cattle men who are feeding 
silage to their stock has increased greatly during late years, and 
in many sections silos are now as common on stock farms as they 
have long been on the dairy farms. The rapid growth of silage 
feeding on stock farms is conclusive evidence that silage is a good 
feed for steers, it is the consensus of opinion among feeders that 
it decreases the cost of beef production considerably, especially 
where no legume hay or protein feeds are fed. Trials have also 
shown that the addition of corn silage to an ordinary fattening 

14 Missouri Circular 24. 



266 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

ration will result in an improvement in the rate of gain and the 
dressing percentage, will decrease the cost of the gain, and give 
better finished steers. 

The value of silage for fattening steers has been demonstrated 
by the results of experiments at a number of our stations. 15 In 
experiments at the Indiana station four lots of steers were fed for 
160 days on rations composed of shelled corn, cotton-seed meal, 
and clover hay, three of the lots receiving corn silage in addition, 
viz., on the average 16.0, 27.4, and 24.8 pounds per head daily. 
The lot receiving shelled corn, cotton-seed meal, and silage yielded 
an average profit of $20.96 per steer; the two lots receiving shelled 
corn, cotton-seed meal, clover hay, and silage yielded $10.51 and 
$13.59, and the fourth lot, receiving shelled corn, cotton-seed meal, 
and clover hay, yielded a profit of $3.37 per head. 

If the value of the pork produced from the droppings and the 
extra corn fed the hogs be included, the profit from the three lots 
fed silage came as follows: $26.21, $17.09, and $19.43 per head, 
in the order given, and that without silage, $8.24 per head. Trials 
at other stations have shown that a ration of corn, cotton-seed meal, 
and corn silage will give equally good results in every respect for 
fattening steers as corn, cotton-seed meal, and clover or alfalfa 
hay. The testimony of experiments with silage vs. roots for fatten- 
ing steers conducted in Canada 10 and in England 17 is also decidedly 
in favor of silage. 

Silage is especially valuable on stock farms in times of short 
2)astufes. A silo for making summer silage is as good an invest- 
ment for beef production as it is on dairy farms (p. 97). 

Concentrates. — The use of concentrates in feeding fattening 
steers will appear from the discussions of different systems of feed- 
ing beef cattle given below. It will be noted that there are wide 
variations in the amounts and kinds of different grain feeds fed 
under different conditions. Beef cattle are finished for the market 
on roughage alone (blue-grass pasture, alfalfa, or alfalfa and beet 
pulp) in eastern and western States, respectively, and in the corn 
belt as much as 24 pounds of grain is often fed per day to fatten- 
ing steers on full feed. The concentrates fed to fattening steers 

15 Missouri Bulletin 112; Pennsylvania Bulletin 118; Indiana Bulletins 
136, 1G3; Virginia Bulletins 157, 173; Illinois Bulletin 73; Ohio Bulletin 
193. 

"Ontario Agricultural College Reports, 1891, 1901, 1902. 

17 Summaries of 201 trials quoted by Henry, " Feeds and Feeding," 10th 
ed., p. 358. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 



267 



are, in general, similar to those fed dairy cows, but the feeding 
of Indian corn predominates, being of far greater importance for 
this purpose than all other grain feeds combined. It is the great 
fattening feed of America, and, on account of its high starch and 
oil contents and high digestibility, may be considered the most 
important factor in both beef and pork production in this country. 
Corn is fed to fattening steers in the majority of cases as snapped 




Fig. 02. — Steer feeding barns and feeding troughs on a California cattle ranch. (See also 
Fig. 31.) (Pacific Rural Press.) 



(unhusked) or husked ear corn or whole shelled corn. It is crushed, 
ground, or soaked only in exceptional cases, viz., when very dry 
and hard on account of having been stored long in the crib. Being 
only medium or low in protein, it is supplemented to advantage in 
feeding steers with legume hay, or some high-protein feed, like 
linseed meal or cotton-seed meal, which is fed two to three pounds 
a day during the last sixty days of the fattening period (Figs. 
62 and G3). 



268 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Use of Self-feeder. — A self-feeder is a labor-saving device for 
feeding grain feeds to stock (Fig. 64). It consists of a feed box 
that holds a considerable quantity of grain or other concentrates; 
the feed passes down into the feed trough below as this is emptied 
by the cattle, and the supply has only to be replenished at inter- 




Fig. 63. — Beef cattle fattened on corn, fed in large, flat troughs. 

Davis.) 



("Productive Farming," 



vals. It may also be used for feeding steers a mixture of grain 
feeds, or cut hay mixed with grain. The self-feeder is used by 
cattle men in different localities with varying success ; no automatic 
system of feeding cattle or other animals can, however, give the best 
results for any length of time, for " the eye of the master fattens 



MmM I 1 




rim 


^ 


n 


" 


Wm ■-■• .nn i " ' 


w ~ 







Fig. C4. — The self-feeder is used by many farmers in the corn belt States for feeding 
corn or grain mixtures to fattening steers. Hogs are generally kept with the steers. {Breed- 
ers' Gazette.) 

his cattle," and the self-feeder can only be looked upon as an aid in 
economizing skilled labor in feeding operations. Cattle men have 
reported both success and failure with self-feeders. It appears 
that, on the whole, they may serve a useful purpose if properly 
constructed 18 and the cattle are put on a maximum grain feed 

18 See Mumford, " Beef Production," p. 149. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 



269 



slowly prior to being turned on to the self-feeder. An experienced 
Illinois cattle man gives as his opinion of the self-feeder that " it 
is more reliable than a careless man and more economical of labor 
than even a careful man." Under favorable conditions, self-fed 
steers are likely to eat more grain and make larger gains than those 
fed by hand, but it requires slightly more feed to produce a given 
gain with the self-feeder. 19 

The feeding of beef cattle will be considered under the following 
heads : Baby beef, yearlings, two-year-olds, and older cattle. 




Fia. 65.- 



-A Mississippi-raised "baby beef" calf. 
(Ward.) 



Note the wonderful thickness of flesh. 



Baby Beef. — The production of baby beef (Fig. G5) is fol- 
lowed mainly by feeders in the corn belt. It has several advantages 
over feeding of older cattle ; there is always a good market demand 
at high prices for this class of steers, weighing 1000 to 1150 pounds 
at an age of 16 to 18 months, and the feeder receives quick returns 
for his investment. Baby beeves are likely to dress somewhat lower 
than older cattle, but they furnish more valuable meat and have 
less inedible fat than the others, and have no coarseness about the 
neck, brisket, and chuck. To offset these advantages, it requires a 
higher grade of cattle and more skill and care on the part of the 
feeder to produce baby beef, and there is a greater chance for 

19 Illinois Bulletin 142. 



270 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



accidents through sickness, like indigestion and blackleg, than in 
feeding older cattle. 

In order to make satisfactory baby beef, calves must be of good 
beef type, low set and blocky, from a pure-bred, early-matured 
beef bull (Fig. 66). Such a bull will sire a high percentage of 
excellent beef calves from good grade cows, but it is not likely 
that calves from scrub or dairy cows can be fattened into sufficiently 
ripe carcasses at the age required. Calves fed for baby beef must 
be kept steadily gaining until they are ready for the market. They 
generally receive their dam's milk until weaning time, and are fed 
grain as soon as they learn to eat it; whole corn and oats in the 




Fig. 66. — A grand champion Shorthorn bull. (Breeders' Gazette.) 



proportion of 3 to 1, with some pea-size linseed meal, will make a 
very satisfactory grain mixture for calves, and with a good grade 
of hay or pasture will produce excellent gains. After weaning, 
they are brought on to full feed as soon as possible and are fed 
the mixture given, with some wheat bran or similar protein feed. 
A little cornstalks may be also fed to advantage. Baby beef calves 
dropped in the spring are rarely ready for market until July of the 
following year ; they are generally marketed during the last months 
of the year, at about 18 months old, when they should weigh about 
1100 pounds. 

Calves raised on skim milk and grain are also sometimes fed 
for baby beef, but this requires special skill and experience because 
of the difficulty of keeping the calves steadily gaining by this sys- 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 271 

tern, as well as of selecting the kind of calves that will have the 
capacity for feed and individual quality necessary to make the 
desired rapid gains under these conditions. Inexperienced feeders 
are not likely to make a success of finishing skim-milk calves as 
haby beeves, as it takes still more expert knowledge than the pro- 
duction of baby beef from calves raised on whole milk. 

Yearlings are cattle 18 to 23 months old. The fattening of 
yearlings represents a less extreme system of fattening than baby 
beef, but is ahead of feeding older cattle in that quicker and larger 
returns are obtained than in the case of these; it has the advantage 
over feeding calves for baby beef in that more of a gain is made on 
grass or rough feeds, and it requires less grain to reach the final 
weight. This method is especially adapted for farmers who have 
an abundance of good summer pasture. Calves generally receive 
little or no grain before they are weaned from the pail or the cow, 
as the case may be. They are furnished abundant pasture for the 
fall months, and during the winter all the good hay they will eat, 
with a small allowance of grain. They depend on pasture only 
during the following summer, and are given a full feed of grain 
the next fall and winter; they will be likely to consume, on the 
average, about 16 to 18 pounds of corn or its equivalent daily at this 
time, in addition to hay or fodder corn planted thick ; a daily feed 
of alfalfa, clover, or other legume hay will furnish a variety and 
produce good results. The grain may be corn alone or equal weights 
of corn or wheat bran; if no legume hay is available, a pound of 
linseed meal should be fed with corn and bran. One pig is kept 
in the feed lot for each steer to consume the corn in the droppings. 
By this method of feeding the steers will be in good condition 
for marketing in the spring, when they will weigh 1100 to 1200 
pounds at 23 months old, and will be likely to command a good 
price. 

Two-year-olds. — The system of marketing two-year-olds (Fig. 
67) is most satisfactory on farms where hay and pasturage are 
abundant and concentrates are expensive. These cattle are fed a 
light grain ration the first winter and a half grain ration the sec- 
ond winter. They are fed grain while on pasture, but, as a full 
feed of grain on grass is only two-thirds of a full feed with hay, 
this makes an economical method of feeding. The steers are gener- 
ally fed soaked corn when on pasture, with some coarse crushed 
linseed cake if they are on timothy or other grass pasture. Two-year- 
olds are, as a rule, marketed in July during the early part of the 
second summer, before hot weather and fly time set in; if marketed 



272 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



before July, they should not be put on grass at all the second sea- 
son, as the shrink that occurs during the first few weeks on grass 
would reduce their weight. 

Two-year-olds are often also carried over to fall by feeding 
fodder corn (corn with ears) after the ears have hardened and 
when the fodder is ready to be shocked. The feeding of the corn is 
continued for about three montbs until toward December, when 
the steers will be sufficiently fat for the market. This method of 
feeding furnishes an excellent and cheap combination of grain and 
roughage well suited for fattening cattle. More liberal gains and 
marketing at an earlier date may be secured by feeding, in addition 
to fodder corn, bran and linseed meal in the proportion of 3 to 1, 




Fig. 67. — Fattening steers in California. {Pacific Rural Press.) 

giving about four pounds of the mixture a day per steer. Gluten feed 
or cotton-seed meal may also be fed to advantage in the place of 
linseed meal, if the market price is in favor of either of these feeds. 
Hogs Following Steers. — It is a common practice to keep hogs 
with the steers in feeding fattening steers, especially in the corn 
belt. The hogs eat the undigested whole and broken corn in the 
droppings of the steers, and a waste of feed is thus prevented. The 
number of pigs per steer varies according to the kind of steers 
and the feed they are receiving; more pigs may be put with older 
steers than with yearlings, and more when corn is fed whole or 
cracked than when corn meal is fed. Waters states 20 that two or 
three pigs per steer are kept when these are fed snapped corn ; one 

20 Missouri Bulletin 76. 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 273 

and one-half per steer on husked corn, about one per steer on 
shelled corn, and one pig per two or three steers on crushed or 
ground corn. Pigs following steers should be of good bone, in thin 
flesh, and of medium weight, viz., about 100 pounds; shoats put 
with steers may be lighter, viz., 50 to 60 pounds. When the pigs 
are nearly matured or fattened they should be replaced by a new 
set of pigs, as fat pigs are unprofitable for following steers. 

The gains made by hogs following steers will vary according to 
the conditions of the feeding. It may be assumed that when a 
steer is fed about IS pounds of shelled corn a day, about three- 
fourths of a pound of pork may be obtained; if ear corn is fed, 
greater gains will be made, while if corn meal or cotton-seed meal is 
fed, only a very small amount of pork will be produced, as the steers 
are able to fully digest the grain when finely ground. 21 

On account of the narrow margin in fattening steers and the 
expense of grain feeding it may happen, under unfavorable market 
conditions, that no profit is made on the steers, but the pigs follow- 
ing them, which have eaten a relatively small amount of extra 
grain, can, as a rule, be depended upon to bring a profit, and they 
often save the feeding operation from being a losing proposition. 

Feeding Range Cattle. — Time was when cattle raised on 
western plains and mountain ranges were kept until four or five 
years old before they were fattened, but the large majority of range 
cattle now are sold as two to three years old, and are fattened for a 
period, varying in different sections of the country, from 60 to 
180 days. The method of feeding depends on the condition and 
demand of the market for which they are intended. In the corn 
belt, where a large proportion of the range steers are fattened, the 
common practice is to feed snapped corn (ears with the husk) as 
the only grain feed at the beginning of the fattening period, giving 
clover or alfalfa hay as supplementary feed ; after six or eight weeks, 
ear corn with some cob meal is gradually substituted for the snapped 
corn, and the corn is increased slowly until the steers are on full 
feed. They will then eat 20 to 25 pounds per head daily. If no 
legume hay is available, a couple pounds per head daily of some 
protein feed is fed with the grain, as wheat bran, linseed meal, 
cotton-seed cake, or gluten feed. Steers on full feed eat but little 
hay, viz., less than 10 pounds daily. 

Cattle in the western States are generally fattened as three- or 
four-year-olds on alfalfa alone. Immense numbers of steers raised 

21 Farmers' Bulletin 588. 
18 



274 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

in Wyoming, Nevada, Texas, and other western and southwestern 
States are fattened each year in the open valleys of the mountainous 
States and in California, receiving no feed but alfalfa hay, fed 
either long or cut (chopped). The cattle do not generally get fat 
on this feed, but the gains made are relatively cheap. As these 
cattle are fed in racks in open corrals, the gains which they make 
are dependent, to a large extent, on the winter weather and the 
condition of the corrals, as well as on the quality of the steers and 
of the feed supply. In case of muddy corrals and feed lots the 
gains made by the steers will be greatly reduced; this applies with 
still more force to hogs with the steers. Paved or cement feed 
lots, or at least feed bunks with wooden platforms, make a profit- 
able investment. The necessary equipment for cattle feeding will 
vary with the climate, and especially the rigor of the winter season. 
Steers comfortably kept and receiving good care will yield greater 
profits than those that have to shift more or less for themselves 
and are exposed to the inclemency of the weather, without shelter 
or protection from rains or snow, cold winds, or intense sunshine. 

Steers fed alfalfa only will eat 25 to 35 pounds of alfalfa hay 
per head daily. Under favorable conditions good steers will gain 
two to two and one-half pounds a day on this feed; the average 
would, however, be likely to come below two pounds per head daily, 
rather than above this figure. The steers go on the market weigh- 
ing from 1000 to 1200 pounds, and have a dressing percentage of 
56 to 60 per cent. There is a preference shown on the western 
markets for small steers weighing less than 1150 pounds. In the 
vicinity of the western sugar factories wet or cured beet pulp is fed 
mixed with chopped alfalfa hay. The common feeding period is 
60 to 90 days, depending on the gains made and the condition of 
the market. Grain is rarely fed to either these or alfalfa-fed 
steers, as the market does not call for finished steers, that are as fat 
as required by the central or eastern markets. Steers fed chopped 
alfalfa hay and beet pulp will generally eat about 100 pounds pulp 
and 15 pounds alfalfa hay per head daily, and will gain about two 
pounds a day on this feed (p. 191). 

Beef Production in Eastern and Southern States. — While the 
West and Southwest supply the bulk of the beef cattle in this 
country, a large number of cattle are being fattened every year in 
the eastern and southern States. The cattle industry is especially 
of increasing importance in the latter section. The South has 
many advantages for beef production, as, in fact, for animal hus- 
bandry in general. Forage crops of a great variety suited for 



FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 275 

cattle feeding can be produced cheaply and abundantly there, and 
the favorable winter climate reduces the cost of investment in 
buildings and equipment for cattle feeding. Excellent forage crops, 
like alfalfa, cowpeas, velvet beans, sorghum, soybeans, etc., together 
with cotton-seed meal, are the main feeds which will enable southern 
farmers to raise and fatten beef cattle cheaply and which will lead to 
a gradual development of the cattle industry in the South. The 
danger of Texas fever is one of the disadvantages. Large areas 
are, however, gradually being freed from the tick that causes this 
disease, and the time is probably not far distant when the whole 
South will be free of the Texas fever tick." 

Rations for Steers. — The following sample rations will show 
the kinds and amounts of feeding stuffs that may be fed to fatten- 
ing steers per 1000 pounds live weight: 

1. 10 pounds clover hay, 20 pounds corn, 3 pounds cotton-seed meal. 

2. 5 pounds clover hay, 5 pounds corn stover, 20 pounds corn. 

3. 10 pounds alfalfa hay, 15 pounds corn, 2 pounds linseed meal. 

4. 10 pounds alfalfa hay, IS pounds corn. 

5. 25 pounds corn silage, 10 pounds mixed hay, 10 pounds shelled corn, 
2 pounds cotton-seed meal. 

0. 20 pounds mixed hay, 10 pounds snapped corn. 

7. 25 pounds cotton-seed hulls, 6% pounds cotton-seed meal. 

8. 20 pounds corn silage, 10 pounds clover hay, 10 pounds barley. 

9. 1") pounds kafir corn, 12 pounds cotton-seed hulls, 3 pounds cotton- 
seed meal. 

10. 8 pounds alfalfa hay, 12 pounds corn meal, (5 pounds oats. 

11. 2.3 pounds alfalfa hay, pounds barley. 

12. 30 pounds corn silage, 10 pounds mixed hay, 10 pounds corn. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the two systems of feeding beef cattle in this country? State 

the advantages and disadvantages of each one. 

2. What is the average composition of the increase in fattening steers? 

3. Why are the Wolfl'-Lehmann standards for fattening steers not reliable 

guides? 

4. What is the law in regard to the relation of age and weight of fattening 

steers to the (a) daily gains, (b) per cent dressed weight? 

5. What does the term spread or margin mean, as used by cattle men? 
(i. Give the main factors on which the spread depends. 

7. Give the factors that determine the length of feeding period. 

8. How much grain and roughage does it take, on the average, to produce 

100 pounds gain in fattening steers? 

9. Why is pasture feeding for steers cheaper than feeding during the winter 

months ? 

10. Discuss briefly the value of silage for steer feeding. 

11. What is baby beef? 

12. Give the conditions under which it may be successfully produced. 

13. Describe briefly the methods followed in the feeding of (o) yearling 

steers, (6) two-year-olds, (e) range steers. 

22 Farmers' Bulletin 588. 



276 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

14. Describe the method of keeping hogs with fattening steers. 

15. Where are the main cattle markets located in the United States? 

16. What do you understand by shrinkage of cattle, how is it influenced, and 

what are the average figures under different conditions? 
17.' What is a self-feeder? Under what conditions is its use advisable in 
beef production ? 

Literature on Feeding Cattle. — Mumford, " Beef Production," Urbana, 
111., 1908 (see p. 220) ; Barnes, " Western Grazing Grounds," Chicago, 1913; 
Ward, " Beef Production in the South," Farmers' Bulletin 580, 1914; Cotton 
and Ward, " Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt," Farmers' Bulletin 
588, 1914;Curtis, " Some Essentials in Beef Production," Farmers' Bulletin 
71, 1898; Bentley, " Cattle Ranges in the Southwest," Farmers' Bulletin 72, 
1898; Armsby, "Feeding for Meat Production," Bur. Animal Ind., b. 108; 
Gray and Ward, " Beef Production in Alabama," Bur. Animal Ind., b. 131, 
159. 

Experiment Station Bulletins, Circulars and Reports. — Ala., b. 103 ; 
Ariz., b. 50; Ark., r. '99; Colo., b. 102; Fla., r. '01, b. 90 and 102; 111., b. 9, 
73, 83, 103, 142, c. 79, 1G9; Ind., b. 129, 130, 130; Iowa, b. 75, c. 0; Kan., b. 
47, 67, 130, 132, 198; Ky., b. 108; Mich., b. 247; Mo., b. 76. c. 24; Miss., b. 
136; Mont., b. 58; Neb., b. 85, 90, 93, 100, 105, 110, 116, 117; N. M., b. 57; 
N. D., b. 33, 73; Ohio, b. 193; Okla., r. '01; Penna., b. 118, 124; S. D.. b. 97, 
100, 148; Texas, b. 76, 86. 97, 110, 159; Utah, b. 90; Va., b. 157 and 173; 
Wash., b. 79; Ont. (Guelph), r. '91. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 

Feeding Standards for Horses. — The Wolff-Lehmann and the 

Kellner-Armsby standards are here given, to be followed in deter- 
mining the best rations for horses. 

The Wolff-Lehmann Standards for Horses, per 1000 Pounds Live Weight 





Dry 

matter 


Digestible 


N. R. 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
and fat* 


Light work .... 
Medium work. 
Heavy work . . . 


20 
24 
26 


1.5 
2.0 
2.5 


10.4 
12.4 
15.1 


1:7.0 
1:6.2 
1:6.0 



* Given separately by Wolff-Lehmann. 
The Kellner-Armsby Standards for Horses 





Digestible 

true 

protein, 

pounds 


Energy 
values, 
therms 


Maintenance requirements: 

For 1000-pound horse 

For 1250-pound horse 

For 1500-pound horse 

Requirements for 1000-pound 
horse, including mainte- 
nance : 
Light work 


1.0 
1.2 
1.3 

1.0 
1.4 
2.0 


7.00 
8.15 
9.2 

9.8 
12.4 
16.0 


Medium work 







Work Done by the Horse (Fig. 68). — The horse is kept for 
the production of work ; this may be pulling a load or carrying a 
rider; in either case, the energy in the feed eaten over and above 
that necessary for the maintenance of the body is used for perform- 
ing the work required, in addition to moving his own body for- 
ward. The work is done by the contraction of his muscles, and 
the material stored up in these from the digested and assimilated 
feed is oxidized in this process. If the oxidation of the materials 

277 



278 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



in the muscles goes on faster than the repair of muscles from the 
feed supplied, the horse will lose weight. This frequently happens 
when a horse is working hard for a considerable period of time and 
does not receive a sufficient quantity of easily digestihle feed (con- 
centrates). 

Character of Feed Required. — As the muscles are largely com- 
posed of proteins, it might he supposed that the decomposition of 
protein in the body would increase with the amount of labor per- 
formed; such is not the case, however. The oxidation of non- 
nitrogenous materials in the body, on the other hand, increases 
rapidly when hard work is done. A part of the energy thus set 
free appears as heat, and another part as mechanical work. The 
oxygen required for the oxidation processes going on in the body is 




Fig. 6S. 



-Draft horses that give a good account of themselves in the show ring, as breeding 
animals and for doing heavy work (Pacific Rural Press.) 



supplied by the blood, and the oxidation products formed, carbon- 
dioxide and water, are exhaled through the lungs and in the per- 
spiration. The result of heavy work is, therefore, seen in an in- 
creased consumption of oxygen and an increasing excretion of 
carbon-dioxide and water. This is also what takes place when 
mature fattening animals are gaining weight. The carbohydrates 
or fat, or both, are the main sources of energy supply both in the 
production of body fat and muscular energy, and it is not neces- 
sary to furnish more protein to working animals than in the case 
of fattening animals, viz., sufficient to insure a complete digestion 
of the feed. For this purpose a nutritive ratio of 1:8 or 1 : 10 
will suffice. 

A growing animal that is performing work requires a special 
supply of protein, and the same appears to be the case with race 
horses or driving horses which perform heavy work within a short 



FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 279 

time; but for horses working at ordinary pace only a relatively 
small protein supply is required. The amounts of non-nitrogenous 
components of the ration, on the other hand, must be increased 
with the amount of work done. The standards for work horses, 
therefore, call for a relatively wide nutritive ratio of 1:6 or 1:7; 
even this ratio is narrower than that of rations ordinarily fed in 
this country, unless alfalfa or clover hay is fed, in which case a 
considerably narrower ratio is fed. Horses in the eastern and 
northern States are frequently given no other feeds than timothy 
hay and either oats or corn and oats. The nutritive ratios of these 
feeds are as follows: Timothy hay, 1:16; corn, 1:9.5, and oats, 
1 : 5.5. It is evident, therefore, that rations composed of these feeds 
will be likely to have nutritive ratios of 1 : 9 or wider. American 
horses (outside of alfalfa sections) are rarely fed appreciable 
quantities of high-protein feeds, showing that they require but 
relatively small amounts of protein in their feed, and that they 
receive wide nutritive ratios even when at hard work. 

Measurement of Work. — The amount of work done by a horse 
may be measured by one of the usual units of mechanical energy, a 
foot-pound or a foot-ton. A foot-pound is the amount of energy ex- 
pended in raising one pound one foot high; a foot-ton is that 
expended in raising one ton one foot high. The horse-power is 
another common unit of energy, and is equivalent to 550 foot- 
pounds per second, or nearly 2,000,000 foot-pounds per hour. A 
horse's capacity for continuous work is, however, considerably smaller 
than this amount, and may be put at about 1,000,000 foot-pounds 
per hour per 1000 pounds weight. Light work done by horses, as 
commonly understood, will mean from 500,000 to 1,000,000 foot- 
pounds per hour, medium work from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000, and 
heavy work from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 foot-pounds. 1 Instead of 
measuring the amount of work done by units of mechanical energy, 
this may be measured in the same way as the potential energy of 
feeds, by the unit of heat, a Calorie or a therm (p. 45) ; this is a 
convenient method, because these unit values are now often used in 
feed analyses and in statements of feeding standards. One Calorie 
corresponds very closely to 1.51 foot-tons or 3087 foot-pounds. 

The relation of the nutrients required for the production of a 
certain work by the horse under varying conditions has been studied 
in extensive investigations by German and French scientists, espe- 
cially among the former, by Wolff, Zuntz, and Kellner. These 

1 Murray, " Chemistry of Cattle Feeding," p. 153. 



280 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

studies have been of fundamental importance, and through them we 
are able to determine approximately the net energy that must be 
supplied in the feed for the production of different kinds of work 
at varying speed, on the level, or ascending certain grades, etc. 
Zuntz found that nearly one-third (31.3 per cent) of the total of 
feed can be converted by the horse into useful work. This is at 
least three times greater economy than that obtained in a modern 
steam engine. The energy required to masticate and digest feed 
by horses was also determined by Zuntz in an elaborate series of 
experiments; this energy was found to vary greatly with feeding 
stuffs of different character. In the case of hay, oats, and corn, for 
instance, the matter stands as follows : 

Hay Oats Corn 

Pound total digestible matter in one pound 391 .615 .785 

Labor expended in chewing and digestion (in terms of 

nutrients ) 209 .219 .082 

In per cent 53 35 10 

In the case of coarse feeds a considerable proportion of the 
potential energy is consumed in the processes of mastication and 
digestion, and hence lost for productive purposes, while with cereals, 
grain feeds, and roots these processes require a smaller proportion 
of the energy, and more remains for production. With some kinds 
of straw a negative nutritive value was obtained, showing that while 
a certain amount of heat was liberated in the digestion of the straw 
which was ordinarily of benefit to the animal, there would be no 
excess of energy available for production ; in fact, a larger portion 
of nutrients than found in the straw would be required to supply the 
energy called for by the increased internal muscular work. 

Energy Requirements of the Horse. — Through the result of 
investigations along this line that have, been conducted especially 
by German scientists we are able to calculate the energy require- 
ments of horses for a certain piece of work. Armsby gives the 
following example: 2 

We will suppose that a horse weighing 1100 pounds is required to haul 
a load of one ton 20 miles a day on the level road, at a rate of 2.88 mileg 
per hour, the draft averaging 100 pounds. The useful work will be in thia 
case 

5280 (feet per mile) X 20 X 100 equals 10,566,000 foot-pounds, or 3,421 
Calories. 

Since 31.3 per cent of the energy liberated in the body is utilized in draft, 
it will require, to perform 3421 Calories of work, 3421 divided by .313, which 
equals 10,929,000 Calories of energy in the body. It has been found that it 
calls for an expenditure of energy equivalent to 264 Calories for a 1100-pound 

2 Cyclopedia American Agriculture, vol. iii, p. 88. 



FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 281 

horse to move his own body a distance of one mile at the speed given, and the 
expenditure of energy for locomotion will, therefore, be 204 X 20 equals 5280 
Calories. To these amounts must be added the maintenance requirements of 
the animal, viz., 4356 Calories. The available energy required per day will 
then be 

Calories 

For useful work 10,929 

For locomotion 5,280 

For maintenance 4,356 

20,565 

If we assume 10 pounds of hay and 10 pounds of oats as the basis of the 
ration of the horse, the remainder of the food to be supplied in the form of 
corn, we have: 

Calories 

Net available energy required 20,565 

In 10 pounds of hay 3,270 

10 pounds of oats 8,820 

12,090 

Lacking 8,475 

Corn required to complete the ration: 8,475-^ 1263 = 6.7 pounds. 

By a similar method of calculation and the use of Kellner production 
values (p. 50), we arrive at 8.3 pounds of oats as the amount required to 
complete the ration. 

The available energy in feeding stuffs for horses has not been 
determined directly, but is from computed data, " some of which 
appear of questionable validity'' (Armsby), and we must, there- 
fore, look upon calculations like the foregoing as showing only 
approximately the true energy requirements of horses for work. 
As a general guide to the feed requirements at work, Kellner 
recommends the amounts per thousand pounds live weight given at 
the beginning of the chapter under Kellner-Armsby standards. 

Having now sketched in merest outline the application of some 
of the scientific principles that have been worked out of late years 
with regard to the relation of feed requirements of horses for work 
of different kinds, we shall consider briefly the practical feeding of 
horses and some important questions that have bearing on this 
subject. 

Feeding the Mare and the Foal. — The new-born foal is always 
given the colostrum of the dam. This has purgative properties and 
serves to cleanse the alimentary tract of fecal matters. As a general 
rule, the foal depends wholly on the milk of his dam for his nourish- 
ment for the first couple of months, and largely so until toward 
weaning time. It is important to feed the mare while suckling 
her colt with a view to having a good supply of milk. If possible, 



282 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

she should receive some succulent feed; good pasture is the ideal 
feed, but some routs or good, bright silage are valuable substitutes, 
and with oats, rolled barley, or wheat bran will favor the milk secre- 
tion. If this should be too rich or abundant and cause the foal to 
scour, he is allowed only a portion of the milk, and the last part 
is milked out, as this is always high in fat content, which is generally 
the cause of the trouble. 

In case the foal cannot have the dam's milk, he may be raised 
successfully on fresh, warm milk from a healthy cow, preferably one 
giving milk of a low fat content. This is diluted with an equal 
part of warm water so as to bring the fat content down to the low 
per cent found in mare's milk (p. 206) ; sugar and a little lime 
water are often added, but are not necessary. Raising a colt by the. 
bottle requires a great deal of care, patience, and watchfulness, and, 
fortunately, is only necessary in exceptional cases. The suckling 
foal may be fed some sweet skim milk in five or six weeks and the 
amount gradually increased daily until in about three months it 
may be given freely three times a day in the place of new milk. At 
this age the foal will eat some grass, hay, or whole oats, which 
gradually become the more important part of his diet. Skim milk 
is continued so long as convenient during the first year. This, 
with grain and other feed that he receives, will develop his bone 
and muscles, which is a matter of first importance with the horse. 
He is kept on pasture (preferably blue-grass) and given oats mixed 
with wheat bran and a little cracked corn. According to Henry, 
the following amounts may be considered a fair allowance of grain 
for foals : TJp to one year, two to three pounds per day ; one to two 
years, four to five pounds; two to three years, seven to eight pounds. 3 

System of Feeding Horses. — There are great differences in 
the methods of feeding horses adopted by horsemen and farmers 
as to details in the manner of feeding, and no one method can 
give best results under all conditions and with different kinds of 
horses. The special method adopted must fit in with the working 
hours and the work the horse is required to do. It is generally 
considered necessary to feed the horse three times a day, although 
the noon meal is sometimes omitted without apparently impairing 
the working capacity of the horse. The heaviest meal, so far as 
hay is concerned, is given at night, the morning meal being next in 
amount, and the noon meal smallest, as he has then less time to 
eat; at least one-half hour is allowed after the morning and noon 

3 " Feeds and Feeding," 10th ed., p. 291; see also Alexander, ''Care of 
New Born Foals," Wisconsin Circular 13. 



FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 283 

meals. The daily grain feed is given about one-third each meal. 
Whatever system is followed, it is important to adopt a regular 
routine of feeding so that the horse may get his feed when he ex- 
pects it and in the manner to which he is accustomed. 

Colin has shown that the stomach of the horse will fill and empty 
itself two or three times during a meal ; the portion of the feed 
first eaten will remain only a short time in the stomach, subject to 
the action of the gastric juice, being pushed into the intestines by 
the feed that follows. It has also been shown that if a horse is fed 
grain and then watered, much of the grain will be carried along 
into the intestines and will, therefore, not be fully digested; hence 
it would seem that the logical order of feeding is, hay and then 
grain; but horses are most anxious to get their grain and will be 
nervous and excited if it is withheld until the end of the meal. 
Farmers generally, therefore, feed their horses grain first and put 
hay before them to be eaten after the grain. 

Watering. — Experiments by Sanborn 4 indicate that the best 
plan of watering horses is to water both before and after feeding. 
Tangl, however, who conducted elaborate experiments on this 
point, 5 concluded that it is of no great moment whether horses are 
watered before, during, or after meals, as it has no influence on the 
digestion or the absorption of the feed which they eat. It is im- 
portant, however, to adopt a reasonable, convenient system of water- 
ing as of feeding, and then adhere rigidly to it, for regularity in the 
handling of horses has an important influence on their general 
health and condition. A moderate drink of water may be given 
horses at any time, even when hot and tired. They appreciate a good 
drink after meals, and especially after the evening meal is eaten, 
before lying down, but often do not get it. A horse will drink from 
50 to 75 pounds of water a day, on warm days even 100 pounds or 
more. Rations of narrow nutritive ratios, like alfalfa rations, re- 
quire larger amounts of water than those low in protein ; this is, 
however, a matter of physiological interest mainly, and of but little 
practical importance. 

Allowance of Roughage. — Owing to the relatively small ca- 
pacity of the digestive apparatus of the horse (p. 30), his feed 
must be given to a large extent in concentrated form. Idle horses 
may be fed more roughage than those at work, and the latter should 
have their main allowance of coarse feed at night, when they have 
time to thoroughly masticate it and can rest after the meal. It is 

4 Utah Bulletin 9. 

B Land\v. Vers. Stat., 1902, p. 329. 



284 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

a common practice to give horses all the hay they can eat, but the 
results of careful investigations tend to throw doubt on the wisdom 
of this practice. In experiments at the Montana station 6 in which 
timothy and clover hay were fed to work horses in different amounts, 
it was found that the horses receiving two-thirds as much hay as 
they would have eaten if given all they wanted had more life and 
perspired less than those that were not limited in their hay. When 
not more than 10 pounds of clover hay per 1000 pounds live weight 
was fed, it proved as satisfactory as timothy hay. It was also found 
that early-cut timothy hay was relished more and eaten in larger 
quantities than late-cut timothy, and that horses doing light work 
can be carried through the winter on 7y 2 pounds hay and 5 pounds 
of grain daily per 1000 pounds. 

Horses should not be fed more hay than they will eat up clean 
at each feed; this is usually less than 20 pounds and, on an average, 
about 15 pounds per day per 1000 pounds live weight. The eating 
of too large quantities of coarse feed taxes the digestive apparatus 
of the horse unduly and is responsible for the disturbance of the 
respiration of the animals known as heaves, especially when over- 
ripe and dusty hay is fed. The Utah station reports 7 that there 
was not a single case of digestive trouble among its horses when 
the amount of alfalfa hay was limited, and states that " many valu* 
able horses and thousands of dollars could be saved annually if the 
amount of coarse fodder fed to horses could be reduced one-half." 8 

Work horses, which are the animals primarily considered in this 
discussion, should, in general, receive about two pounds dry feed 
for each 100 pounds of live weight ; of this amount, one-half should 
be concentrates and one-half hay or its equivalent of succulent feeds 
when a medium amount of work is done; as the work increases, the 
concentrates are increased and the amount of hay decreased. 

Hay for Horses. — Among the rough feeds, timothy hay is con- 
sidered especially valuable as a feed for horses, but other kinds of 
dry forage, like clover, alfalfa, prairie hay, cowpea hay, grain hay 
(wheat, barley, or oats), corn fodder, millet, and others, are all 
valuable horse feed when well cured and free from dust, and are 
used in different parts of the country. 

Alfalfa Hay. — There is a prejudice against legume hay, and 
perhaps especially against alfalfa, among many horsemen, as it is 
believed to make the horse soft and unfit for heavy work. A number 

6 Bulletin 95. 

7 Bulletin 77. 

8 See also Illinois Bulletin 150. 



FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 285 

of stations have carefully investigated this subject, the most ex- 
tensive inquiry having been conducted at the Utah station. 9 No 
ill results were noted in these experiments ou the health of the 
horses by long-continued, exclusive feeding of alfalfa. Attacks of 
colic and other digestive disorders can be prevented by a judicious 
system of feeding, giving less than the horses will clean up (see 
above). During these experiments, which were conducted for a 
period of twelve years, alfalfa formed the sole roughage of all the 
working and driving horses at the station, except during brief 
periods when they received other experimental fodders, and not a 
horse was lost, either directly or indirectly, as a result of feeding 
alfalfa during this entire period. This is not surprising when we 
remember that alfalfa forms the only roughage, and often the only 
feed, throughout the year on thousands upon thousands of farms 
in the western States, especially in irrigated regions, as it is also 
the sole feed of dairy cows among many farmers in these regions. 

The Utah station found that 20 pounds of alfalfa hay were 
sufficient to maintain the weights of horses weighing nearly 1400 
pounds when at rest ; when at heavy work, 32.6 pounds were barely 
sufficient to maintain the weights of the same horses. Results of 
trials at the Wyoming station 10 showed that four farm horses re- 
quired to perform light work maintained their weights on a daily 
ration of 13i/> pounds of alfalfa hay when they had access to a 
stack of oat straw. In a second test made with two horses it was 
found that the weights were maintained on an average daily ration 
of 13.75 pounds alfalfa hay and 2.25 pounds oat straw per 1000 
pounds live weight. A trial at the Wyoming station with six 
horses 11 fed during ten one-month periods on alfalfa hay showed 
a total gain of 203 pounds, while during an equal period on native 
hay there was a total loss of 84 pounds. The Kansas station con- 
cluded, from experiments conducted with work horses, that alfalfa 
hay, when properly fed, is a much more valuable roughage than 
either timothy or prairie hay, and reduces the cost of the daily 
ration from 25 to 35 per cent when substituted for either hay and 
fed with corn and oats. 

It may, therefore, be considered established that alfalfa hay is 
a good feed for horses fed with other roughage or grain, and if 
desired, it may also be fed as sole feed without any ill results. The 
main precautions to be observed are as follows : The hay must not 

9 Bulletin 77. 

10 Report 12. 

"Bulletin 98; see also Nebraska Extension Bulletin 28. 



286 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

be cut until quite mature; it must be free from dust, mold, or 
smut, and must be fed in limited quantities, a maximum amount 
of work horses being one and one-fifth pounds per 100 pounds live 
weight. 

In trials at the Illinois station it was found that when alfalfa is 
fed as the roughage part of a ration of farm horses at hard work 
less grain is necessary to prevent them from losing weight than 
when timothy hay is fed. In this test there was a saving of about 
22 per cent grain. Though too short to be conclusive, these tests 
indicate that medium horses at hard work can be maintained quite 
satisfactorily, for a short time at least, on corn fed in conjunction 
with alfalfa hay at a saving in cost. 

Grain hay is much used as a horse feed on the Pacific coast 
and in the South, and millet, sweet and non-saccharine sorghums to 
some extent in the western States. Millet cut at the beginning of 
bloom and well cured makes hay of an excellent quality that is 
nearly equal to timothy hay in feeding value. The danger of pastur- 
ing horses on second-growth sorghum on account of the possibility 
of prussic acid poisoning has been referred to in another place 
(p. 110). The grain sorghums are often cut and fed to horses, 
"heads and all," without threshing the grain (p. 174). 

Silage for Horses. — Corn and alfalfa silage may be safely fed 
to horses in moderate quantities, provided certain precautions are 
taken: It must be made from at least fairly mature corn and he 
well preserved; silage exposed long to the air before feeding, or 
frozen or moldy silage, must not be fed to either horses or mules, 
and the latter kind of silage had better not be fed to any class of 
farm stock. Good silage is one of the cheapest and best kinds of 
feed for horses, especially for brood mares and work horses that 
are doing light work. It should only be fed with dry roughage and 
a little at first, say five pounds per head daily, increasing the allow- 
ance, as the horse becomes accustomed to it, to 10 or 20 pounds as 
a maximum feed per day. With plenty of grain on the cornstalks, 
horses are kept in good condition on a ration of 20 pounds silage 
and 10 pounds hay for each 1000 pounds live weight. 12 

Roots may be fed to advantage in small quantities, 10 pounds 
being a maximum allowance per day. " An addition of 5 or 6 
pounds of carrots to the daily feed ration of ordinary working horses 
will almost always be of benefit; and 3 pounds a day will not be too 
much for race horses, even in a high state of training. It is safest 

12 Farmers' Bulletin 57S; see also Pennsylvania Bulletin 117. 



FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 287 

to give carrots sliced longitudinally, so that they may not stick 
in the animal's gullet and thus choke him " (Hayes). Roots, espe- 
cially carrots, are greatly relished hy horses, and are fed quite ex- 
tensively in Europe. Sliced potatoes, 10 to 12 pounds as a maxi- 
mum feed, may also be given, preferably mixed with cut hay or 
straw. 

Concentrates. — Among the concentrates oats are, in general, 
considered of a higher value in feeding horses than any other grain 
feed. They are eminently adapted for this purpose, and are relished 
better by horses than other cereals. Oats can be fed safely to horses, 
since the digestive tract of these animals does not hold a sufficient 
quantity to produce serious disorders. Owing to the presence of 
the hull, oats form a light and loose mass in the stomach, which 
makes it easy for the digestive fluids to permeate the mass and 
insures a more complete digestion. Oats should be fed whole to 
horses, or, at least, crushed or rolled, except in the case of old 
horses with poor teeth. If corn and oats are fed, as is a common 
practice in the East and central States, the feed should be coarsely 
ground, as it may otherwise give rise to colic and indigestion when 
swallowed fast by hungry animals. While oats form the common 
cereal fed to horses in most parts of the country, other grains are 
used in different sections and countries: Indian corn largely in the 
corn belt and the southern States, barley on the Pacific coast, in 
European countries, and North Africa. Barley is the common horse 
feed in Arabia, world-famous for its fine breed of horses. 

Corn is the main substitute for oats as a horse feed ; a large 
number of stations 13 have studied the question of the relative value 
oi' the two grains for this purpose. The general result of this work is 
to the effect that corn is a safe and satisfactory horse feed, and that 
the best method of feeding is to give a mixture of the two grains. 
This gives better results than corn alone and, in general, makes a 
cheaper ration than oats as a sole concentrate. In discussing concen- 
trates for horses, Gay says : 14 " 'When its general use in the corn belt 
States is considered, much of the prejudice of the eastern feeders 
loses weight. The average Iowa horse, for instance, is produced by 
a dam which was raised on corn, and had no other grain during the 
period of carrying and suckling her foal. The foal receives a little 
cracked corn or even cob corn for his first bite, with the amount 



"Ohio Bulletin 195; Kansas Bulletin 180j X. Dakota Bulk-tin 45; 
Missouri Bulletin 114; also Exp. Sta. Rec, vol. 12, p. 4: E. Lavalard, 
" Notes on Horse Feeding." 

11 " Productive Horse Husbandry," p. 2:$r>. 



288 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

gradually increased until he is allowed from 20 to 40 ears per day 
at maturity. In spite of this fact, when these very horses come 
East, top our markets, and pass under the management of the 
city stable boss, corn is absolutely prohibited as dangerous to feed ; 
yet it requires a long time to induce and teach some of these horses 
to eat anything else." 

Other Concentrates. — Dried brewers' grains with shelled corn 
and wheat bran, in amounts of 8, 4, and 2 pounds, respectively, 
were found to give good results fed to street-car horses, in experi- 
ments at the New Jersey 15 and Massachusetts stations. 16 About 
one pound of linseed meal per head daily with corn and oats 
gave satisfactory results with farm horses in trials at the Iowa 
station, 17 maintaining their weights and spirits and willingness to 
work. On account of its laxative tendencies, it should be used in 
only small amounts (less than one pound per head daily, espe- 
cially in summer). Cotton-seed meal, beet and cane molasses, dried 
distillers' grains, dried beet pulp, etc., are other concentrates used 
regularly in rations for horses in different parts of the country. 
There is, therefore, a great variety of feeds to choose from in feed- 
ing horses in almost all sections; evidently there is no so-called 
one ration for horses any more than for other classes of farm ani- 
mals. " Any feeding stuff or combination of feeding stuffs that 
furnishes the necessary and desirable nutrients at least cost should 
be the important consideration in preparation of rations for farm 
horses and mules." 18 

Wintering Farm Horses. — Farm work is comparatively light 
in winter time in northern States, and the horses then often stand 
idle for a considerable period. If they are fed expensive feeds, like 
timothy hay and oats, at this time, they will soon " eat their heads 
off," and it is impossible to keep them in good working condition 
at a low feed cost. Cornstalks or corn fodder furnishes an excellent 
roughage for winter feeding of horses; cereal straws are also valu- 
able; a few ears Of corn are often all the grain the horses receive 
with this roughage. 

The question of cheap substitutes for oats and timothy for 
wintering farm horses was studied in an experiment with twelve 
horses at the Michigan station ; 10 six of these were fed a regular 

"Report 1892. "North Carolina Bulletin 1S9. 
16 Bulletin !)9. 10 Bulletin 254. 

11 Bulletin 109. 



FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 



289 



ration of timothy hay and oats, while the others received shredded 
cornstalks, oat straw and hay for roughage, and ear corn, oats, and 
a mixture of dried beet pulp, bran, and oil cake in the proportion 
of 4 : 1 : 1 ; 8 pounds of carrots were also fed to the horses receiving 
this ration, which was composed of these various feeds in order to 
furnish a variety to the animals and insure a good appetite through- 
out the feeding trial. The cost of the two rations, based on average 
prices, was 19.-1 cents per head daily for the regular ration and 
12.3 cents for the cheaper ration. The horses fed the latter gained, 
on the average, 1-1 pounds during the ten weeks of the trial, while 
those fed the regular ration, doing about 8 per cent more work, lost, 
on an average, 11 pounds in weight. It is recommended to use a 
small part of the corn field to raise a supply of corn fodder for 
wintering horses, " planting the corn in drills thick enough to 




Fig. 69. — Horses on the western range. {Pacific Rural Press.) 



produce moderate-sized stalks, an abundance of leaves, and from 
one-half to two-thirds of a crop of ear corn, the whole to be in 
bundle form." 

Horses that have been idle or doing but little work during the 
winter should be started on a small grain ration with light work 
about six weeks before spring work commences, so as to be put in 
condition for this work; the grain is increased gradually in order 
to avoid digestive disorders (Fig. 69). 

Fleshing Horses for Market. — Horses are collected from all 
over the country in small numbers every fall, and are fattened 
during the winter months and shipped to the large markets to be 
sold. This business is one of considerable magnitude in the middle 
West. The gains made and the profit secured depend on a number 
of factors, similar to those that condition the profitableness of 
steer fattening (p. 261). The Illinois station conducted two ex- 
19 



290 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

periments with different rations for horses of this kind : 20 One 
with 18 horses for 24 days and the other with 24 horses for 112 
days. The following are some of the conclusions to which these led : 

1. A mixed grain ration of corn and oats, when fed with clover 
hay, was more efficient than a single grain ration of corn for pro- 
ducing large gains. 

2. A ration of corn, oats, and timothy proved satisfactory for 
producing finish in fleshing horses for market, but was materially 
improved by the addition of linseed meal. 

3. A ration of one-fourth oats and three-fourths corn proved 
more economical than one of half oats and half corn. 

4. A ration of corn and bran, fed in proportions of 4 to 1 by 
weight, was superior to an all-corn ration for producing gains, when 
fed in conjunction with clover hay. There is apparently danger 
in feeding too much bran for best results when clover hay furnishes 
the roughage part of the ration. The bran and clover combined 
produced a too laxative condition. Exercise had a retarding effect 
upon the taking on of flesh, the horses receiving no exercise making 
24 per cent larger gains than those having a daily walk of 2.8 miles. 

The average daily gain in these trials ranged from about two to 
three pounds per head. According to Craig and Brettell, horses on 
full feed fattened for the Chicago market receive 10 to 14 ears of 
corn three times a day, with three quarts of oats and bran (1:2), 
and hay ad lib., in the middle of the forenoon and again in the 
middle of the afternoon. Eecognizing the importance of a long 
period of rest, no feed is given between 6 or 7 at night and the 
morning. Linseed meal is also given, as it aids greatly in putting 
on flesh and makes the skin soft. Satisfactory gains are made with 
good feeding and care; in several instances an average gain of 3.75 
pounds per head daily was obtained with as many as a dozen horses, 
and in exceptional cases a gain of 5 pounds per day for a period 
of 90 days. 21 

Rations for Work Horses. — The following rations will show 
the combinations of different feeds and the amounts of each com- 
monly fed in the various sections of the country: 

1. 12 pounds timothy hay, 12 pounds oats. 

2. 12 pounds timothy hay, 7 pounds oats, 7 pounds corn. 

3. 10 pounds timothy hay, G pounds cracked corn, pounds wheat bran, 
2 pounds linseed meal. 

4. 15 pounds mixed hay, 10 pounds oats, 4 pounds corn. 

20 Bulletin 141. 21 Breeders' Gazette, 1899, p. 781. 



FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 



291 



5. 10 pounds clover hay, 8 pounds oats, pounds corn, 2 pounds wheat 
bran. 

C. 10 pounds alfalfa hay, 12 pounds barley. 

7. 30 pounds alfalfa hay. 

8. 8 pounds mixed hay, 6 pounds cornstalks, G pounds corn, 6 pounds 
wheat bran. 

9. 10 pounds hay, 8 pounds oats, 4 pounds dried brewers' grains. 

10. 10 pounds hay, 5 pounds corn, 5 pounds barley. 

Feeding Mules. — " The work animal on the southern farm is 
the mule (Fig. 70). He it is that bears the brunt of the work of 
cultivating the growing crop, harvests it when mature, and hauls it 




A team of farm work mules. (Missouri Station.) 



to market. In the South the horses on the farm remain in field 
or stable until all the mules are harnessed, and are only called into 
use when the labor to be done is more than the mules can accomplish. 

"The mule is the draft animal for the lumberman, the cotton 
and sugar planter, the contractor, and the miner. 

" The horse may be honored for his procreative ability ; he may 



292 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

be kept on the best in the land because of his beauty and style, but 
the mule is fed that he may labor." 22 

It is commonly stated that mules make more economical use 
of the feed they eat than horses, and that their cost of keep is, 
therefore, smaller. Careful investigations have failed to show, 
however, that there is a sound basis for this claim. After a long 
experience with thousands of army mules, Eiley maintains 23 that a 
mule requires just as much feed as a horse of similar dimensions; 
in fact, at hard work, he says that the mule will eat more than a 
horse will or ever can. In general, an animal that eats little is a 
poor animal, regardless of its class or kind. The mule will manage 
to get along on poor feed given at irregular intervals, but this 
neglect is manifested by its condition and efficiency (Burkett). 

A number of stations have conducted experiments with the two 
classes of animals which furnish data for a study of this question. 
The following summary figures were obtained at the Missouri and 
Ohio stations, the animals being fed oats and hay in one series of 
experiments, and corn and hay in another series, and the hay being 
figured at $10 a ton, oats at 40 cents a bushel, and shelled corn 
50 cents a bushel. 

Average 
yearly cost 
Average daily work of feed 

Average for mules 4 hours 42 minutes $58.11 

Average for horses 4 hours 34V-J minutes 58.01 

Summarizing all available data on this point, the Breeders' Ga- 
zette 24 arrived at the average cost of feed for all the horses per 
1000 pounds as $75.66 per year, and for the mules, $76.76. " These 
figures indicate that the mule has no constitutional advantage over 
the horse in cheapness of maintenance. In fact, the horse has a 
slight lead in the data presented, but the difference is so small as to 
be negligible. In actual practice it is probable that the mule is 
maintained a little more cheaply than the horse, because oats are fed 
to horses more commonly than to mules. The practice of feeding 
oats to work horses, however, is largely a whim of the feeder, since 
numerous tests have shown that corn may be entirely substituted 
with satisfactory results. The difference between the two is thus 
largely a matter of custom, so far as light is shed on the problem 
by the tests mentioned." 

22 Kentucky Bulletin 176. 

23 Burkett, " Feeding Farm Animals," p. 170. 

24 Sept. 10, 1914, p. 390. 



FEEDING HORSES AND MULES 293 

Mules may be fed the same feeds and similar amounts of these as 
horses, and what has been said in the preceding about feeding this 
class of animals applies, in general, also to mules. 

QUESTIONS 

1. State the general laws governing the use of feed by horses. 

2. Give a common ration for horses in your locality, and show in how far it 

approaches the Wolff-Lehmann and the Armsby standards. 

3. How is the work done by horses measured? 

4. State the main principles of feeding (a) foal, (b) the mare, (c) work 

horses. 

5. When are horses preferably watered, and how many times fed daily? 

6. Should horses receive all the hay they will eat? Why? 

7. Discuss the value of different rough feeds for work horses. 

8. State briefly the value of silage and of roots for horses. 

9. Give the main concentrates fed horses, and state briefly their relative 

values. 

10. Give the system of feeding farm horses during winter, when idle or doing 

light work. 

11. How are horses fattened for market? 

12. Which makes the more economical use of feed eaten, the horse or the 

mule? 

13. Is a small consumption of feed a desirable point in farm animals? 

Literature on Horses. — Gay, " Productive Horse Husbandry," Phila- 
delphia, 1914. Roberts, "The Horse," New York, 1905. Johnstone, "The 
Horse Book," Chicago, 1908. " Heavy Horses, Breeds and Management," 
London, 1905. " Light Horses, Breeds and Management," London, 1904. 
Langworthy, " Principles of Horse Feeding," Farmers' Bulletin 170, 1903. 

Experiment Station Publications on Horse and Mule Feeding: Florida, 
b. 72; Illinois, b. 141; Indiana, b. 97; Iowa, b. 18, 109, c. 6; Kansas, b. 186; 
Kentucky, b. 176; Maine, r. '91; Maryland, b. 51; Massachusetts, b. 99, 
(Hatch) b. 94; Michigan, b. 254; Mississippi, b. 15; Missouri, c. 27, b. 114; 
Montana, b. 95, 97; Nebraska, b. 130; ext. b. 28; New Hampshire, b. 82, 
129; New Jersey, r. '93, b. 92; North Carolina, b. 189; North Dakota, b. 26, 
45; Ohio, b. 195; Oklahoma, r. '98, '99; Pennsylvania, b. 117, 122; Utah, 
b. 77, 101; Virginia, b. 80; Wyoming, r. 12, b. 98; Ottawa, r .'06; Bur. An. 
Industry, c. 168; Farmers' B. 170; Ollice Exp. Stations, b. 125. 



CHAPTER XXV 

FEEDING SWINE 

Feeding Standards for Swine. — Standards for feeding swine 
have been established by Wolff-Lehmann as given in the following 
table : 

The Wolff-Lehmann Standards for Swine, per 1000 Pounds Live Weight 



Brood sows, with pigs . 
Fattening swine — 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 

Growing swine — 



Breeding stock 



Fattening stock . 



Age, 

months 


Weight, 
pounds 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible 


Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
and fat* 






22 


2.5 


16.4 






36 


4.5 


26.6 






32 


4.0 


25.1 






25 


2.7 


18.9 


2-3 


50 


44 


7.6 


30.3 


3-5 


100 


35 


4.8 


24.1 


5-6 


120 


32 


3.7 


22.2 


6-8 


200 


28 


2.8 


19.4 


8-12 


250 


25 


2.1 


15.8 


2-3 


50 


44 


7.6 


30.3 


3-5 


100 


35 


5.0 


24.9 


5-6 


150 


33 


4.3 


23.7 


6-8 


200 


30 


3.6 


21.4 


8-12 


300 


26 


3.0 


19.0 



N. R. 



1:6.6 



5.9 
6.3 
7.0 

4.0 

5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
7.5 

4.0 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 
6.4 



* Given separately by Wolff-Lehmann. 

Feed Requirements of Swine. — Next to the dairy cow, the 
hog is the most economical producer of human food materials among 
our farm animals, and it stands close to the cow in this respect. 
Jordan has shown that 100 pounds digestible organic nutrients 
in the ration produce the following amount of edible solids in 
the form of the various animal products : 

Milk, 18 pounds. 

Pork, 15.6 pounds. 

Veal, 8.1 pounds. 

Poultry or eggs, 3.5 pounds to 5.1 pounds. 

Beef, 2.75 pounds. 

Mutton, 2.60 pounds. 1 
While these are only average figures, and may not hold true in 
individual cases, they show that the hog has a wonderful capacity 



1 " The Feeding of Animals," p. 405. 
294 



FEEDING SWINE 295 

for converting feeding stuffs into human food, and he often does it 
under very adverse conditions as regards care and attention, and 
without being particular as to either the character of the feed or 
the quarters he occupies. No farm animal appreciates good feed 
and comfortable quarters, however, or responds more readily to 
good treatment, than do swine, but none are more abused in these 
respects. The pig is an omnivorous eater and can fatten on feed that 
other stock will not touch, but the best results in feeding pigs, as in 
the case of other farm animals, are secured when they receive 
good, wholesome feed and are given careful attention. Under 
these conditions, swine raising is especially profitable, and while 
it requires a smaller investment in animals and equipment, it will, 
as a rule, yield quicker and relatively larger results than any other 
branch of animal husbandry. 




Fig. 71. — A group of young Berkshire pigs. (Iddings.) 

Swine are remarkable producers of fat (Fig. 71). The com- 
position of the increase in body weight in the case of fattening 
swine, as determined by Lawes and Gilbert, is as follows: Protein, 
1.4 per cent ; fat, 71.5 per cent ; mineral matter, 0.1 per cent ; water, 
22.0 per cent, showing that the fattening process in the case of 
these animals, still more than with other fattening stock, consists 
largely of an accumulation of body fat (p. 20). 

Birth Weight and Gains Made by Pigs. — Pigs, when far- 
rowed, will weigh from about one and a half to three pounds each ; 
two and a half pounds may be considered an average weight for our 
common, medium-sized breeds. The number of pigs in a litter will 
average about nine. Young pigs ordinarily gain more for every week 
as they grow older, but there is a gradual decrease in the rate of 
gain to body weight. The largest returns for the amount of feed 



296 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



eaten are secured from young pigs; or, to put it in another way, 
the amount of feed required for a pound of gain is smallest in the 
case of young pigs, and increases steadily with advancing age (Fig. 
72). The fact is Drought out in a striking manner by the follow- 
ing compilation by Henry 2 of over five hundred feeding trials 
conducted at American experiment stations with over 2200 pigs 

The Relation of Weight of Pigs to Feed Consumed and Rate of Gain 











Feed 






Weight of pigs, 
pounds 


Number 
of animals 


Average 

live 
weight, 
pounds 


Average 

feed eaten 

per day, 

pounds 


eaten 
daily per 

100 
pounds 

live 
weight, 
pounds 


Average 
gain per 

day, 
pounds 


Feed 
for 100 
pounds 

gain, 
pounds 


15 to 50 


174 


38 


2.2 


6.0 


0.8 


293 


50 to 100 


417 


78 


3.4 


4.3 


0.8 


400 


100 to 150 


495 


128 


4.8 


3.8 


1.1 


437 


150 to 200 


489 


174 


5.9 


3.5 


1.2 


482 


200 to 250 


300 


226 


6.6 


2.9 


1.3 


498 


250 to 300 


223 


271 


7.4 


2.7 


1.5 


511 


300 to 350 


105 


320 


7.5 


2.4 


1.4 


535 



in all. , In compiling the results given in the table, six pounds of 
skim milk and twelve pounds whey were rated equal to one pound 
of concentrates (one feed unit) . The table shows the average weight 
of the pigs in each group, the feed eaten daily and per 100 pounds 
live weight, the daily gains made, and the feed per 100 pounds 
gain (Fig. 73). 



WEIGHT OF 
PIG5-LB5 


100 ZOO 300 400 500 600 


15-50 

50-100 

100-150 

150-200 

200-250 






































































250-500 














500-500 

















Fig. 72. — The amount of feed consumed per 100 pounds of gain for fattening pigs increases 
with their live weights. 



" Feeds and Feeding," 10th ed., p. 502. 



FEEDING SWINE 



297 



The greater economy of young growing pigs as compared with 
older ones for making gains from a given amount of feed is plainly 
seen from this tahle. While pigs of less than 50 pounds live weight 
required only 293 pounds of feed per 100 pounds gain, pigs weigh- 
ing 150 to 200 pounds required 482 pounds, and hogs weighing 
over 300 pounds required 535 pounds per 100 pounds gain. This 
difference does not represent one of actual feed value in the 
products, however, as the carcass of the mature hog contains more 
dry matter and more fat than that of young animals, but the feeder 
selling young animals has the benefit of the situation, as he is 
paid for the total weight furnished, and not only for the dry matter 
or edible portion of the carcass. 



tjBfe^JT* 






■ ,,.;,.. -. __^ itj p MM BB— HMi— a^^^ 


BMfetr-' 










l^ff*"'. ■'£&$!&! 



Fig. 73. — Well-fed, busy youngsters that will grow into good porkers. (Henry.) 



Eesults similar to those shown in the preceding table were ob- 
tained in the extensive swine-feeding experiments conducted at the 
Copenhagen station during the nineties. 3 In these trials it required, 
on the average, 376 feed units to produce 100 pounds of gain with 
pigs weighing from 35 to 75 pounds each, and 639 pounds with hogs 
of 275 to 315 pounds weight, there being a gradual increase from the 
former to the latter figure with increasing weights of animals fed. 

Preparation of Feed for Swine. — It has been shown that the 
digestibility of feeding stuffs is not, as a rule, materially altered by 
different methods of preparation, like cooking, cutting, grinding, 
rolling, etc. (p. 67). In view of the special importance of this 

3 Report 30, 1895; Exp. Sta, Record 7, p. 245, 



298 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

question especially in feeding swine, we shall give briefly the evidence 
of experimental work along this line. 

Grinding Grain. — Trials conducted for ten years at the Wis- 
consin station 4 show that an average saving of 6 per cent was 
secured by grinding shelled corn for pigs; in 11 out of 18 trials 
conducted there was a saving and in 7 cases a loss by grinding the 
corn. If corn is worth 50 cents a bushel, there is, therefore, a saving 
of 3 cents per bushel by grinding, out of which the labor and cost 
of grinding must be paid. It is evident from this result that grind- 
ing corn for fattening pigs in general does not pay. In these trials 
the pigs fed ground corn ate more feed and gained more rapidly 
in a given time than those receiving whole corn. This is doubtless 
the reason why some farmers believe that pigs do better on ground 
than on whole corn. According to a summary by Rommel 5 of 19 
trials with 297 pigs, it required 524 pounds whole corn or 479 
pounds meal to produce 100 pounds gain, a saving of 8!/2 per cent, 
or a little higher than found in the Wisconsin trials. Similar ex- 
periments with small grains and peas have shown that there is a 
saving of 12.3 per cent in feed by grinding. 6 It is advisable, there- 
fore, to grind these grains in feeding pigs or to soak them before 
feeding (see below). 

Cooking Feed. — Cooking feed has now been abandoned for all 
classes of farm animals except occasionally for swine. The question 
of the advisability of cooking grain for fattening hogs was studied 
by a number of stations in the eighties. Henry gives a sum- 
mary of 17 trials at five different stations with cooked and un- 
cooked grain (corn, barley, peas, rye, or shorts, fed separately or in 
mixtures) for swine, showing that in all but one trial there was a 
marked increase in the feed required per 100 pounds gain when this 
was cooked (steamed) ; it required, on the average, 490 pounds of 
uncooked feed per 100 pounds gain and 5G1 pounds of cooked feed — 
a loss of nearly 15 per cent in the efficiency of the feed, not con- 
sidering the expense of cooking. This practice has now been gen- 
erally abandoned, except in the case of a few feeds, like potatoes, 
field peas, roots, chopped musty hay, etc., which are occasionally 
steamed by some feeders to induce a larger consumption or improve 
the palatability of the feed (p. G7). 

Soaking Feed. — Soaking or wetting feed for swine is practised 
by some feeders who believe they obtain better results thereby. It 

4 Report 1900. 

D Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 47. 

Loc. cit. 



FEEDING SWINE 



299 



has been shown, however, that no decided advantage is secured by 
this method. The average results of twelve trials conducted at 
eight different stations, as shown by Eommel (loc. cit.), came as 
follows: Feed required per 100 pounds gain, dry feed 444 pounds, 
wet feed 434 pounds, a difference of 2 per cent in favor of the latter 
feed. The pigs, in general, ate more soaked or wet feed than dry 
feed, and often made slightly better gains on the former feed, but 
the returns per unit of feed eaten were not, as we have seen, appre- 
ciably improved by the method of preparation; nor has it been 
shown that the amount of water fed in the slop of pigs has any 
material effect on the gains made or on the utilization of the feed. 7 

Swine Feeds. — The various feeds used in feeding swine have 
been previously discussed, and we shall consider here only a few 
of the main swine feeds, especially with reference to feeding prob- 
lems in different sections of the country. 



10 II 12 



ILLINOIS 

IOWA 

KANSAS 

NEBRASKA 

MISSOURI 

OKLAHOMA 

TEXAS 

INDIANA 

OHIO 

GEORGIA 

MINNESOTA 

WISCONSIN 

■■MILLION BUSHELS OF INDIAN CORN 
EW3 NUMBER OF SWINE, MILLIONS 
^gNUMBER OF CATTLE. MILLIONS 

Fig. 74. — Diagram showing the number of bushels of corn and number of swine and 
cattle listed in the twelve leading corn-growing Slates in the I'nion, according to the census 
of 1910. 




7 Indiana Bulletin 86 j see also Copenhagen Station Report 10, 1887. 



300 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Indian corn is by far the most important single swine feed in 
this country. The States in the corn belt are growing more pigs 
than any other section, and there is, in general, a parallelism 
in the different States between the two industries, corn growing 
and pork production (Fig. 74). The corn is mostly fed on the cob, 
and the labor and expense of shelling and grinding are thus saved. 
Trials at a large number of stations have shown that it requires, 
on the average, about 555 pounds of shelled corn per 100 pounds 
gain, or that a bushel of shelled corn (56 pounds) will make very 
nearly 10 pounds of pork. The pigs made an average daily gain of 
0.98 pound in these trials, which were conducted in more than a 
dozen different States and included thirty different series of ex- 
periments. 

Corn is, above all, a fattening feed, and stands at the head of 
desirable concentrates for finishing fattening swine. Both on 
account of its relatively low protein content and high starch content 
(N/. E., 1 : 9.5) and its low content of mineral matter, it is not well 
adapted for feeding alone to young growing pigs, and much danger 
has been done to our swine industry through the abuse of this grain 
as an exclusive feed for such pigs. The studies of this problem by 
Sanborn and Henry in the eighties were some of the earliest con- 
tributions of the Missouri and Wisconsin stations to the science of 
animal nutrition and have been of the greatest importance to 
American swine-breeders. 

Feeding for Fat and for Lean. — Henry's striking experiments 
on " feeding for fat and for lean " 8 were especially adapted to bring 
the attention of farmers to the danger of using corn as a sole feed 
for young pigs (Figs. 75 and 76). In these trials one lot of pigs 
was fed corn meal only, and the other received skim milk, wheat 
middlings, and dried blood or other combinations of protein feeds. 
The method of feeding followed greatly influenced both the gains 
made by the pigs and the composition of their bodies. The corn 
ration produced relatively low gains in live weight, and the bodies 
of the pigs were abnormal as regards the development of the 
skeleton, muscles, and internal organs. The amount of blood for 
each 100 pounds of dressed carcass of the corn-fed pigs was greatly 
decreased below normal. The tenderloin and other muscles were 
relatively light, the proportion of internal fat and that stored within 
the muscular tissue was abnormally high, and the strength of the 

8 Wisconsin Reports, 188G-1890. 



FEEDING SWINE 



301 



bones of the corn-fed pigs was greatly diminished, resulting, in 
general, in a weakly animal that would fall an easy prey to disease 
and accidents. 

The lesson brought out by these and other experiments along 
this line is that young animals must receive a feed or a com- 
bination of feeds fairly rich in protein and mineral matter (N. K., 



Fig. 75. 



Fig. 76 




Figs. 75 and 76. — Cuts of pigs fed for "fat and'for lean"; Fig. 75 shows'the disposition 
of fat and lean in the necks of the pigs, and Fig. 76 the fat and the lean of the loin or small 
of the back of the pigs. A, fed for lean; B, fed for fat. Note the large size of the individual 
muscles of the protein-fed pigs over those fed carbohydrates. Corn should be supplemented 
by clover, shorts, peas, skim milk, and similar feeds to bring the best results in feeding pigs. 
(Wisconsin Station.) 

1 : 7 or less), that will develop a body with normal bone structure, 
muscles, and internal organs. As corn is deficient in both these 
constituents, pigs require supplementary feeds of nitrogenous char- 
acter (skim milk, middlings, peas, tankage, dried blood, etc.) for 
a normal growth, or, at least, an addition of wood ashes, ground 
bone, or ground rock phosphate (floats), to build up a strong frame. 
Where corn does not do well, other cereals may take its place 



302 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



to advantage in the feeding of pigs; wheat, barley, rye, kafir corn, 
field peas, cowpeas, soybeans, etc., are all valuable swine feeds when 
it is practicable to feed them, either in combination with Indian 
corn or with each other. Barley occupies a similar place to the 
farmers of California (and of northern Europe) as corn does in 
the corn-growing States, and has the advantage over corn in being 
higher both in protein and ash. It will give best results with pigs 
if rolled or ground before feeding. Oats are not a satisfactory 
swine feed on account of their high fiber content, except for breeding 
stock and shoats that are not being fattened. In the case of these 
animals they may be fed whole, scattered on the ground or on a 
feeding floor, so as to give the animals exercise at the same time 
(Fig. 77). 




Fig. 77. — Meal time for the swine herd. Intelligent feeding and careful management 
make well-bred hogs a source of profit on most farms. Note construction of individual 
hog houses. (Wisconsin Station.) 

Dairy products form a most important group of swine feeds 
in dairy sections, and are used extensively as feeds supplementary 
to Indian corn. The results obtained in feeding skim milk and 
corn to pigs depend, to a large extent, on the proportions in which 
the two feeds are given. Skim milk alone will produce very un- 
satisfactory results in feeding pigs, 9 and more than five or six 
pounds of skim milk per pound of corn is also likely to give poor 
returns. The ratio of skim milk to grain to be fed will depend 
upon the relative price of the two feeds and on the age of the 
animals; fed to pigs shortly after weaning, larger proportions of 
milk will give better results than with older animals. The results 

Utah Bulletin 57; Conn. (Storrs) Bulletin 39. 



FEEDING SWINE 



303 



of a large number of trials at the Wisconsin station and else- 
where showed that a ration of 3 to 1 will give most economical 
results in gain of live weight. Fed in the ratio of 1 to 3 pounds 
milk for each pound of corn meal, Henry found 10 that 327 pounds 
of milk were required to save 100 pounds of meal; in the ratio 
of 3-5 : 1, 446 pounds; 5-7 : 1, 574 pounds, and 7-9 : 1, 552 pounds, 
and, on the average for all trials, 475 pounds (p. 207). 

Corn is the best supplemental grain to feed with skim milk or 
buttermilk for growing pigs; with whey, on the other hand, wheat 
shorts, pea meal, or linseed meal as a part of the grain ration is to 
be preferred, being mixed with corn in increasing proportions of the 
latter as the animals approach maturity. 11 Trials made in this 




Fig. 78. — Making pork on rape and oats. The average returns for three years on this 
pasture were $22. S4 per acre. (Missouri Station.) 

country and abroad have shown that 1000 pounds of ordinary whey, 
when fed with grain feed, such as corn meal and barley or shorts, 
will save 100 pounds of grain in feeding fattening pigs, and that 
two pounds of whey are worth about as much as one pound of 
skim milk or buttermilk in feeding swine (p. 209). Canadian 
experiments have shown no appreciable difference in the feeding 
value of sweet and sour whey, but whey run through a separator or 
from separator skim milk is worth only 75 to 80 per cent as much as 
common whey obtained in the manufacture of American cheddar 
cheese. 12 



"Wisconsin Report 189."); st-e also Cornell Bulletin 109. 
"Wisconsin Report 8, p. 38; Ontario Report, lSDti. 
"Ontario Reports, 1897 and 1909; Wisconsin Report 8, p. 47. 



304 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Pastures. — As with other farm animals, swine will make the 
cheapest gains when grazing or harvesting their own feed (Figs. 
78 and 79) ; pasture only, without any supplementary grain feed, 
will not, however, produce satisfactory gains, whether this con- 
sists of mixed grasses, clover, or alfalfa. In trials at the Utah 
station 13 pigs weighing 60 to 75 pounds when on pasture (alfalfa 
and mixed grasses, chiefly the former) gained only 0.2 pound daily; 
pigs receiving one-half grain ration when on pasture gained 0.7 
pound; and those receiving a full grain ration gained 1.2 pounds 
daily. The pasturage saved about 15 per cent in the amount of 
grain required for the production of 100 pounds gain. The 




Fig. 79. — Making pork on blue grass. The average returns for four years on this pasture 
were $15. IS per acre. (Missouri Station.) 

practice of feeding pastured pigs small grain rations is an econom- 
ical method of carrying pigs over summer that are to be fattened 
later, since such pigs will make rapid gains when put on full 
feed, and at a slightly less cost than those fed a full ration from 
the start (Utah Bulletin 94). 

Alfalfa pasture alone will furnish but little more than a main- 
tenance ration for pigs, 14 but if grain is fed, all of this can then be 
used for production. Two pounds of corn or more per 100 pounds 
of pigs have been found more profitable than a lighter ration. 15 
When grain is fed, an acre of alfalfa will furnish pasture for at 

13 Bulletin 94. 

"Oklahoma Report, 1899; Mississippi Report, 1905; Nebraska Bul- 
letin 99. 

15 Nebraska Bulletin 99 ; Colorado Bulletin 2. 



FEEDING SWINE 305 

least 2000 pounds of pigs (15 to 20 shoats of medium weight), 
and will produce 500 to 1000 pounds of pork, according to the kind 
of pigs fed, pasture and weather conditions. 

Temporary Pastures. — Eape (Fig. 78), soybean, cowpeas, In- 
dian corn, sorghum, etc., furnish excellent feed for growing pigs 
and brood sows and will enable the animals to make rapid gains 
when supplemented with grain. Pork can be produced more 
cheaply by feeding grain with green forage than by feeding either 
alone. The value of rape pasture for feeding swine, especially for 
breeding sows, is well understood (p. 138). 

Hogging down corn is a common practice of harvesting a corn 
field in the corn-growing States. The method is especially adapted 
to sections where labor is scarce. The corn is generally allowed to 
nearly mature, and pigs of medium weight (80 to 120 pounds) or 
brood sows are turned in to gather the corn. They will eat the 
ear corn and leave a great deal of the coarser part of the plant, 
husks, cornstalks, and cobs to be plowed under, which, with the 
manure from the hogs, will greatly improve the humus content and 
the fertility of the land. Incidentally the pigs get considerable 
exercise and fresh air and will be less susceptible to disease than 
pigs fed in a dry lot. When the fat hogs are removed from the 
field, brood sows and pigs may be turned in ; they will clean up and 
make good use of what is left. Hogs running at large in a field 
or pasture will be put in prime condition for market if fattened 
in a pen for a period of three to four months by being fed all the 
corn they will eat, with plenty of pure water. According to Bur- 
kett, 1G a 5- to 10-acre field of good corn will carry 50 to 75 hogs 
from the shoat to the finished period. The total quantity of pork 
produced from a given acreage, when hogged down, will be greater 
than when ear corn or snapped corn is fed in pens. 

Feeding the Boar. — The feeding of the boar should vary ac- 
cording to his age and the season of the year. Thin, growing boars 
need more grain than older ones, but neither should be fed so 
that they will grow fat, since this will impair their breeding 
qualities, just as much as having them in a thin body condi- 
tion. The boar should receive only as much grain as he will 
clean up readily, and should have a chance to exercise in summer 
time in a pasture lot, and in the winter in a small yard adjoining 
the pen. Succulent feed should be provided throughout the year if 

""Feeding Farm Animals," p. 254; see also Fanners' Bulletin, 014, 
Iowa Bulletin 143. 

20 



306 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

possible : During the summer by pasturage or cut green feed, 
giving enough grain to maintain a good condition of flesh ; during 
the winter months either roots, pumpkins, or culled fruit may be 
supplied. An allowance not over a pound daily of grain per 100 
pounds live weight will be sufficient while on the summer pasture, 
and during the winter, two pounds grain and four to six pounds 
roots. The grain should contain a considerable proportion of pro- 
tein, as, e.g., shorts and fine-ground oats (2 to 1 or 3 to 1). Skim 
milk is especially valuable for young boars as the breeding season 
approaches, and during this time two or three pounds grain may be 
fed ; a mixture of equal parts of corn, ground oats, and middlings 
will prove an excellent combination. 

Feeding the Sow and the Pigs. — The brood sow must be kept 
in a good body condition at all times, so far as possible, so as to be 
able to give birth to thrifty, vigorous pigs, and to furnish an abun- 
dance of milk for a healthy, rapid growth. Succulent feeds are 
an essential part of the ration both in summer and winter. A 
farrow, matured sow will keep in good condition on good clover 
or alfalfa pasture alone, but a young sow must receive about one 
to two pounds of grain daily per 100 pounds weight in addition; 
e.g., a mixture of oats or barley and shorts, with a little corn so as 
to keep the nutritive ratio down to about 1 to G (p. 294). But little 
grain is fed for a few days before farrowing, and the sow is given 
cooling feeds of a laxative nature, as roots, and a slop made up 
largely of bran or shorts. For the first twenty-four hours after 
farrowing no feed is given, but all the lukewarm water she will 
drink; she is then given limited feed for three or four days, and is 
slowly brought up to full feed in the course of about ten days. A 
grain mixture of ground corn, ground oats, and shorts (1: 1:2), 
mixed with three to five pounds skim milk, will give excellent re- 
sults at this time; she should also be given some roots and be put 
on pasture as soon as possible. As much of the grain is fed as she 
will eat up readily. 

After two or three weeks, the pigs should be given some feed in 
a small trough of their own, and this amount increased as rapidly 
as they are able to clean up more. When the sows and pigs are 
on pasture they will eat much less grain, but should be allowed 
some grain all the time, as it will prevent the sow from getting 
too thin, and will enable the pigs to grow more rapidly; gains 
made at this time are much cheaper than those made later on, as 
has been shown (p. 258, Fig. 80). After the pigs are about three 
months old, they should weigh 60 pounds or better; they should 



FEEDING SWINE 307 

get their nourishment largely from pasturage, and only one-half 
grain feed is given, unless feed is cheap, in which case full grain 
feed may be continued until they are weaned at four to five months 
of age. If the sow is to raise two litters a year, the pigs must be 
weaned at a considerably earlier age, viz., from one and one-half 
to three weeks old, in order to get the sow bred again in time. To 
do well, pigs weaned at this age must have had grain before weaning 
and must also receive skim milk with their grain feed after this pe- 
riod. If skim milk is not available, a slop is made of hot water and 
rolled or ground barley, oats, and wheat shorts (1:1:2). A little 
digester tankage added to the slop before feeding will give good 
returns. 

The amount of grain fed to pigs on pasture should vary accord- 
ing to the kind and condition of the pasture, price of grain, thrifti- 




Fig. 80. — A thrifty bunch of sows and pigs crowding around the feed troughs —a familiar 
farm scene. (Pacific Rural Press.) 

ness of the pigs, etc. The Oregon station 17 gives the following as 
a safe rule to go by with regard to feeding grain to pigs on pasture : 
When the price of pork on foot at the farm is more than three 
times the price of grain, a rather heavy ration should be given; 
when the price of pork is five times or less than the price of grain, 
a minimum amount should be fed. 

The growing period of pigs will last until they are five to six 
months old, depending on the method of feeding practised, usually 
about five months old, when they will have reached a weight of 
nearly 100 pounds ; they are then put on fattening rations. 

The Dietrich Standard for Pigs. — Dietrich concludes, from 
careful studies of the nutrition of pigs conducted during a series 
of years, that one and the same pig under different conditions may 

17 Circular Bulletin 18. 



308 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



maintain its live weight on distinctly different quantities of the same 
combinations of feed. This variation appears to be due to the plane 
of nutrition upon which the pigs have been maintained previous 
to the time of making the maintenance experiment. He gives the 
maintenance requirements of pigs that have been previously kept 
on a low nutritive plane as follows : 

Dietrich Maintenance Standard for Pigs, Per Head, 100 Pounds Live Weight. 
Digestible crude protein Digestible carbohydrates Digestible fat 

0.10 pound 0.25 to 0.40 pound 0.03 pound 

Tbe energy requirements of the ration are about 1.12 therms 
(p. 35). 18 

The rations given in the following table have been calculated 
according to the rather elaborate system of feeding pigs recom- 
mended by Dietrich : 



An Approximate Ration for 


Pigs Intended for Breeding Purposes 




Age of pigs in months 


Feeds 


2 3 4 5 6 7 


8 




Pounds of feed per 100 pounds live weight per day 


Corn 

Soybeans (seed). 

Skim milk 

Water 


2.7 

.4 

6.0 

7.1 


2.8 

.5 

6.0 

6.4 


2.9 

.4 

6.0 

5.7 


2.9 

.4 

6.0 

5.1 


3.0 

.4 

6.0 

4.4 


3.3 
.4 

9.2 


2.9 

.7 

8.5 



In the place of corn may be substituted rye, barley, wheat, rice, 
etc., and in the place of soybeans, linseed meal or peas, but in 
the latter case the quantity fed must be increased, as peas contain 
less protein than the other feeds. " This would also increase the 
carbohydrate, hence the corn would have to be correspondingly de- 
creased. Or these may be left out and more skim milk added. 
Some of the protein may also be supplied in the form of clover or 
alfalfa. If skim milk is not available, more of some other nitrog- 
enous feeds may be supplied, and also more water, as milk is 85 
to 90 per cent water. If tankage containing 60 per cent protein is 
used in place of soybean meal, much less will suffice, as tankage is 
richer in protein. 

"The above is intended for dry lot feeding (Fig. 81). If pigs 
are on pasture, these quantities should be somewhat reduced. If 
the above ration is used in a dry lot, a little bran or shorts used 

18 Illinois Bulletin 163; Circulars 126, 133, and 153. 



FEEDING SWINE 



309 



in place of part of the corn so as to give the ration more hulk will 
improve it. A greater variety of feeds will probably also make the 
ration better.'' Swine may grind their own grain, as shown in 
figure 82. 

Fattening Swine. — In the corn belt States, which supply a 
large proportion of the hogs fattened, for market, the common 




Fig. 81. — A cement feeding floor provided with sanitary substantial troughs is an essential 
to a well-equipped piggery. (Wisconsin Station.) 

practice is to keep the hogs with fattening steers until three to 
four weeks before the end of the fattening period, when they are 
penned and finished for market. As previously shown, the number 
of hogs put with the steers will vary with the form in which corn 




Fig. 82. — The "hog motor," a device for making pigs grind the corn they eat. (Hog Motor 
Company, Minneapolis.) 



is fed to the latter; the extra grain which the hogs receive is 
likewise determined by this factor, and the amount of undigested 
feed in the droppings of the steers (p. 273). If the steers are fed 
snapped ear corn or whole shelled corn, much more passes through 
undigested and becomes available to the hogs in the droppings than 
if soaked corn, ground corn, or corn and cob meal is fed. If the 



310 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



steers are fed protein feeds in addition to corn, they are able to digest 
the starchy components of the ration better than in case of wide 
nutritive ratios, and hogs, in that case, can glean less feed from the 
droppings. 

Fattening Rations. — When the ration of the steers consists of 
whole corn, the hogs are usually fed one-fourth to one-third pound of 
tankage per head daily; this will be all they need in addition to the 
corn in the droppings for about four to five weeks, until they do 
not apparently gain further in weight. They are then taken out 
and finished on a ration of corn and tankage, cotton-seed meal, 




Fig. 83. — Portable hog-houses with low, flat roofs; if used for housing swine in hot 
weather, they should be provided with a shade at the rear under which the pigs can lie in 
comfort. This shade is five feet wide, made of inch stuff placed upon removable supports 
which rest upon cleats nailed to the ends of the house. (Wisconsin Station.) 



peas, shorts, or gluten feed, in the proportion of seven parts of corn 
to one of tankage, or of three parts of corn to two parts of either of 
the other feeds. The fattening period ordinarily lasts about sixty 
days, at the end of which time the hogs will generally weigh about 
200 pounds. 

In other sections of the country hogs are either fattened on dif- 
ferent kinds of pasture and fed grain in addition, or are fed in 
a dry lot until ready for the market. The latter method is less 
satisfactory for summer and fall feeding than pasturage, as it 
increases the cost of production, the hogs are less thrifty, and a 
larger amount of grain is required per 100 pounds gain. It is essen- 
tial to furnish some green feed, as clover, alfalfa, and corn. The 



FEEDING SWINE 




312 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



kind of grain fed with it will vary according to the character of the 
available green feed; with leguminous crops the grain may consist 
of corn or barley, preferably soaked or ground with a little tankage. 
If green corn, rape, or sorghum forage is fed, more nitrogenous 
feed mixtures must be supplied ; skim milk and tankage are the best 
supplementary feeds with the cereals and mill feeds. Cotton-seed 
meal is fed considerably in the South to fattening hogs with corn 
or other grain, but fatal results often follow on account of the 
poisonous principles found therein (p. 200). If the animals are to 
be fed not more than twenty-one days in the finishing period after 
pasturage or running with steers, one-third of the total grain ration 
may be made up of cotton-seed meal; if it is likely to extend 
beyond twenty-one days, the proportion of cotton-seed meal must 
be reduced to one-fifth or one-sixth of the whole ration and the finish- 
ing period be limited to five weeks in all. 19 







Fig. 85. — The self-feeder saves labor in feeding pigs and other farm animals. The 
large self-feeder is used for different grain feeds, and the small one for feeding charcoal, 
ashes, and lime. 

The Use of Self-feeder.— The self-feeder (Figs. 85 and 8G) 
has been used to a limited extent in feeding fattening swine, for 
feeding grain or salt, charcoal, etc., and has given similar results, 
as previously stated, in the case of steers and sheep. 20 A patent ed 
" hog motor grinder," by which the pigs grind their own corn as, 
wanted, is a special form of self-feeder. In two trials at the Mary- 
land station 21 it produced good results, but not quite as economical 
gains as hopper feeding. 

19 Farmers' Bulletin 411. 

80 Maryland Bulletin 150; Wisconsin Agriculturist, Sept. 17, 1914. t 

* Bulletin 150; Day, " Productive Swine Husbandry," p. 20& 



FEEDING SWINE 



313 



According to the forage conditions in different parts of the 
country, great variations in the methods of feeding fattening hogs, 
as well as swine in general, are possible. The preceding sugges- 
tions will, however, indicate in general the plan of feeding that 
will be likely to give best results in special cases. 

Summer vs. Winter Feeding.- — By far the greater proportion 
of the pigs in this country are fitted for the market in the summer 
and early fall, and depend on the summer pasturage, supplemented 
by grain, for cheap and rapid gains. Hogs fattened during winter, 
as a rule, require somewhat more feed for making a certain gain 
in weight than during the summer, at least in the North. No 
exact information in regard to this point is available for this country, 
but records obtained in Danish pig-feeding trials with about 2500 
summer- and winter-fed pigs have a direct bearing on this question. 
The following summary table 22 shows the amount of feed eaten, 
reduced to a grain equivalent according to the feed-unit system, and 
the feed requirements per 100 pounds gain in weight and for each 
of three groups of pigs — 35 to 75 pounds, 75 to 115 pounds, and 115 
to 155 pounds — with averages : 

Feed Required to Fatten Danish Pigs in Winter and in Summer 



Weight 


Grain equivalent 

per day per head, 

pounds 


Grain equivalent 

for 100 pounds gain, 

pounds 




Winter 


Summer 


Winter 


Summer 




2.66 
3.96 
5.26 

3.96 


2.65 
3.92 
5.25 

3.94 


371 
446 
516 

444 


346 


75 to 115 pounds 

1 15 to 155 pounds 

Average 


397 
457 

400 







While the pigs ate practically the same amounts of feed in, 
summer and winter, it required 400 pounds to make 100 pounds of 
gain in summer, against 444 pounds in winter, an increase of 11 per- 
cent. The larger feed requirements in winter are explained by the 
fact that more body heat is lost by radiation on account of the lower 
air temperature. The same result was obtained in comparing tho 
feed required by pigs weighing about 70 pounds each, kept in a well- 
built piggery and in individual hog-houses (Fig. 83), at the Ottawa 
station. 23 The trial was conducted during fiO days in winter time. 

. -. 

22 Copenhagen Station Report 3Q, 1805; Exp. Sta. Record 7, p. 246, 
?3 Report, 1904, 



314 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



In the open winter quarters the pigs ate 52 G pounds grain per 100 
pounds gain, against '3GG pounds for those in the piggery, a differ- 
ence of 44 per cent in favor of the latter quarters. Brood sows in 
similar colony houses required only 25 per cent more, a figure which 
corresponds closely to that obtained in trials at the Kansas Agri- 
cultural College 24 (Fig. 84). 

Feeding for Bacon Production.— Bacon hogs are kept only 
to a relatively small extent in the United States, but the raising 
of such hogs and the production of a high quality of bacon are 
important special industries in Canada and northern Europe, es- 
pecially in Ireland and Denmark. The bacon found on the market 



— 




■ 


* 



Fig. 86. — A convenient self-feeder for supplying charcoal and mineral matter to pigs on 
pasture. (Breeders' Gazette.) 

in this country is largely the sides of lard hogs and has an inferior 
grade of meat. The special breeds of bacon hogs are best adapted 
to the production of good bacon, having a larger body and legs, less 
thickness and depth of body, and being lighter in shoulder, neck 
and jowl. There is less accumulation of fat and more lean and firm 
meat than on the lard hog. While the latter hog is essentially a 
product of corn, the bacon hog is produced where dairy products, 
small grains, and leguminous feeds are readily available; hence we 
find some hogs of this type in eastern and northern States where 
favorable feeding conditions exist for bacon production, and there 
is apparently an increasing home demand for all bacon that is 
produced in this country. Bacon hogs are marketed at about 200 



Report Prof. Agr., 1883. 



FEEDING SWINE 315 

pounds live weight ; they should he only moderately fat, and a firm 
quality of fat is essential in a first-grade article. Soft hacon is a 
serious defect and is produced by a variety of causes. These have 
been summarized as follows by Day : 25 

'• 1. Lack of Maturity. — Generally speaking, the more immature a hog 
is, the greater the tendency to be soft. Almost invariably the largest per- 
centage of softness occurs among the light sides of bacon. 

'• 2. Lack of Finish. — Thin hogs have a marked tendency to produce soft 
bacon. Marketing hugs before they are finished is, no doubt, responsible for 
a great deal of softness. 

" 3. U nthriftiness in hogs, no matter what the cause may be, almost in- 
variably produces soft bacon. 

" 4. Lack of exercise has a tendency to produce softness, but this ten- 
dency can be largely overcome by judicious feeding. 

" 5. Exclusive meal feeding is, perhaps, one of the most common causes 
of softness, especially when hogs are not given exercise. Some kinds of 
meal are more injurious than others, but wherever exclusive meal feeding 
is practised and the exercise is limited, more or less softness is always sure 
to result. 

" (J. Corn. — Of the grains in common use, corn has the greatest tendency 
to produce softness. Its injurious tendency can be modified by mixing it 
largely with other meal or by feeding skim milk, green feed, and roots, but 
its tendency to produce softness is so strong that it must be regarded as an 
undesirable food for bacon hogs. . . . 

" 7. Beans seem to have more marked effect than corn in producing soft- 
ness, and should not be used for finishing bacon hogs."' 

Barley and skim milk make the best combination for bacon pro- 
duction, and may be fed in the ratio of 1 to 3 or 1 to 5. These feeds 
will produce large gains and a good quality of meat ; other valuable 
feeds are peas, linseed meal, fine-ground oats and tankage. Clover, 
alfalfa, or rape will furnish large and satisfactory returns in summer 
with barley, shorts, and a small amount of skim milk. Winter feed- 
ing is also practised where roots are available — either mangels or 
sugar beets; they should be supplemented by skim milk and barley 
or wheat, with some linseed meal or tankage. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do pigs rank in relation to other farm animals as producers of 

human food? 

2. Give the average birth weight of pigs. 

3. State the average amount of feed eaten daily by pigs of different weights 

and the feed per 100 pounds gain for pigs of different live weights. 

4. What, if any, is the advantage of grinding, cooking and soaking feed for 

swine? 

5. Describe the use of Indian corn in swine feeding. 
G. How can swine be fed for fat and for lean? 

7. Discuss briefly the value of dairy products and of pasture for swine 
feeding. 

20 « p r0( i uc tive Swine Husbandry," p. 134. 



316 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

8. Give briefly the method of feeding fattening swine in different parts of 
the country. 

9. What is the difference in feed requirements per 100 pounds gain of swine 

in summer and in winter? 

10. Give Dietrich's maintenance requirement of digestible protein and 
energy value for breeding pigs, and outline the method of feeding 
recommended by him. 

11. Describe the method of feeding swine for bacon production. 

12. What feeds are especially adapted for this purpose? 

Literature on Swine. — Day, " Productive Swine Husbandry," Phila- 
delphia, 1013. Lovejoy, " Forty Years' Experience as a Practical Hog Man," 
Springfield, 111., 1914. Dietrich, " Swine," Chicago, 1910. Coburn, " Swine 
Husbandry," New York, 1888. Dawson, "The Hog Book," Chicago, 1911. 
Spencer, " Pigs, Breeds and Management," London, 1902. Tracy. " Hog 
Raising in the South," U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 100, 1899. Rommel, "Pig 
Management," Farmers' Bulletin 205, 1908. Gray, " Feeding Hogs in the 
South," Farmers' Bulletin 411, 1910. Warren, "Hog Houses," Farmers' 
Bulletin 438, 1911. Hunter, "Pastures and Grain Crops for Hogs in the 
Pacific Northwest," Farmers' Bulletin 68. 

Experiment Station Publications on Swine Feeding. — Ala., b. 82, 93, 
122, 143; Ark., b. 41, 54, 84; Col., b. 47, 74, 146, 165, 188; Conn. (Storrs), 
b. 31,39; Fla., b. 113; Ga., b. 87 ; Idaho, b. 74; 111., b. 16, 97, 163; c. 126, 133, 
153; Ind., b. 79-82, 90, 108, 126, 158; Iowa, b. 2, 48, 91, 106, 113, 143, 136, 
ext. b. 15 ; Kan., b. 53, 61, 95, 124, 136, 192 ; Ky., b. 101 ; Mass., r. '84, '97, '99 ; 
Me., r. 89; Md., b. 141, 150; Mich., b. 233, 243; Minn., b. 104; Miss., r. 
'05; Mo., b. 14, 29, 67, 79, 110; Col., b. 1: c. 55; Mont., b. 27, 57, 89; Neb., 

b. 94, 99, 107, 121, 123, 124; press b. 20; N. H., b. 113; N. M., b. 90; N. C, 

c. 5; N. Y. (Cornell), b. 89, 199, 220; Ohio, b. 209, 268; r. '84; c. 73; Okla., 
r. '99-'00, p. 48; Ore., c. b. 18, 54, 80, 89, 102; Pa., b. 95; R. I., b. 152; 
S. Dak., b. 38, 52. 55, 63, 83, 90, 105, 136; Utah, b. 34, 70, 101, 94, r. '91; Vt., 
r. '91; Va., b. 167, 176; Wash., pop. b. 63; W. Va., b. 59; Wis., b. 104, 144; 
r. '85, '89, '90, '91, '94, '95, '02, '05, '06; Wyo., b. 74, 96; Ont., r. '96, '97, 
'99, '01, '05; Ottawa, b. 33, 51, 57; r. '91, '94* '01, '02, '04, '08. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 

Feeding Standards for Sheep. — The three following tables give 
the established feeding standards for sheep of different types and 
ages: 

The Wolff-Lehmann Standards for Sheep, per 1000 Pounds Live Weight Daily 



1. Growing sheep : 
Wool breeds . 



Mutton breeds . . 



Age, 

months 



4-6 

6-8 

8-11 

11-15 

15-20 

4-6 

6-8 

8-11 

11-15 

15-20 



Live 
weight, 
pounds 



60 
75 
85 
90 
100 

65 

85 

100 

120 

150 



2. Sheep, coarse wool 

Sheep, fine wool 

3. Ewes, suckling lambs 

4. Fattening sheep, first period . . . 
Fattening sheep, second period 





Digestible 


Dry 










matter, 




Carbo- 


pounds 


Protein 


hydrates 
and fat* 


25 


3.4 


17.0 


25 


2.8 


15.2 


23 


2.1 


12.6 


22 


1.8 


12.1 


22 


1.5 


11.5 


26 


4.4 


17.5 


26 


3.5 


16.6 


24 


3.0 


15.4 


23 


2.2 


13.7 


22 


2.0 


12.9 


20 


1.2 


11.0 


23 


1.5 


12.7 


25 


2.9 


16.1 


30 


3.0f 


16.1 


28 


3.5f 


15.9 



N. R. 



1 : 5.0 
1 : 5.4 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:7.7 

1:4.0 
1:4.8 
1:5.2 
1:6.3 
1:6.5 

1:9.1 

1:8.5 
1:5.6 
1 : 5.4 
1:4.5 



* Given separately by Wolff-Lehmann. t Doubtless too high, making N. R. too narrow. 



The Armsby Standards for Sheep, Maintenance Requirements, per Day and Head 



Live 
weight, 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 


Energy 
value, 
therms 


Live 
weight, 
pounds 


Digestible 

protein, 
pounds 


Energy 
value, 
therms 


20 


.23 


.30 


100 


.10 


1.00 


40 


.05 


.54 


120 


.11 


1.13 


60 


.07 


.71 


140 


.13 


1.25 


80 


.09 


.87 









317 



318 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Growing Sheep, Estimated Requirements (Including Maintenance 
Requirements) per Head Daily 



Age, 
months 


Weight, 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein, 
pounds 


Energy 
value, 
therms 


6 


70 


0.30 


1.30 


9 


90 


.25 


1.40 


12 


110 


.23 


1.40 


15 


130 


.23 


1.50 


18 


145 


.22 


1.60 



Types of Sheep. — Sheep are kept for two more or less distinct 
purposes : For production of wool and for meat production. Accord- 
ing to the particular breed kept, emphasis is laid on one or the other 
of these purposes. We have representatives of both kinds of sheep 
in this country (Figs. 87, 88, and 89) : The range sheep, which are 
primarily wool producers, and the general farm sheep, " which 
should be considered, first of all, a producer of mutton and handled 
so that it will yield the chief source of income through its mutton 
lambs." 

The range areas devoted to sheep raising, like those used for 
cattle raising, are gradually diminishing with the settlement of 
western lands by the farmer, but they still furnish our main supply 
of sheep. The numbers of sheep on farms or ranges in this country 
have diminished with each decade from 1880 to 1910, while our 
population increased over 80 per cent during the same period, from 
50,000,000 people in 1880 to 92,000,000 in 1910. There has also 
been a gradual decrease in sheep kept on farms in the eastern and 
northern States. Sheep raising in these States and on western 
farms, on land adapted to the production of early lambs and fatten- 
ing of mature sheep, seems likely, however, to be of increasing im- 
portance in the future, as the demand for good mutton increases 
and prices advance, as they are bound to do, with our rapidly- 
increasing population and the decreasing ratio of farm animals to 
population. The primary conditions for success with sheep, as with 
other farm animals, lie, first, in keeping animals that are adapted for 
the purpose in view, preferably pure-breds, or sired by a pure-bred 
ram ; and, second, the feeding and caring for these so as to obtain 
the best results possible under the special conditions surrounding 
each flock. 

Sheep are primarily grazing animals ; they serve a special purpose 
on the farm by being able to utilize feed that is not adapted to, or 
cannot be used by, other classes of farm animals ; stubble fields, 
volunteer growth, pasturage and, especially, aftermath that is too 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 



319 




320 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



scant to make it worth while to pasture cattle or horses thereon, 
will often furnish abundant feed for sheep. Their ability to keep 
weeds in check on farm lands is also important. According to 
Craig, 1 cattle and horses eat about 50 per cent of the numerous plants 
regarded as weeds, while the proportion eaten by sheep is over 90 
per cent. A single sheep does not destroy a whole plant at one time, 





Fig. 89. — A good type of mutton sheep. {Pacific Rural Press.) 

but, moving as they graze, each sheep nibbles a few leaves in passing, 
and when the flock has passed the plant is defoliated. Sheep are, 
therefore, economical feeders if need be, but they also respond 
better than the larger farm animals to intensive feeding, and will 
give quicker returns for the investment for stock and equipment 
than the larger ones. A daily gain in weight of a quarter of a 
pound to one-half pound is not excessive for sheep weighing 100 
pounds, while a 1000 pound steer will not be likely to gain more than 

1 " Sheep Feeding," p. 7. 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 



321 



two pounds daily on approximately the same feed as eaten by ten 
sheep. Sheep are ruminants and consume considerable quantities 
of rough feed; they, therefore, need smaller proportions of expen- 
sive grain feed than do swine. For these and other reasons the 
further development of the American sheep industry is a matter 
of great economic importance, especially in view of the decreasing 
ratio of meat-producing animals to our population, which is likely 
to continue with the rapid extension of the manufacturing industries 
in this country. 

Wool Production. — In feeding sheep, whether of the wool or 
mutton type, a growth of both wool and body tissue takes place. 
If only sufficient feed is given to maintain the sheep at an even 
body weight, the growth of wool is diminished, but does not stop 
entirely. When liberal fattening rations are fed, on the other hand, 
a normal growth of wool results; this cannot be further increased 
by feeding heavier rations, so far as the wool fiber is concerned, 
but the weight of fleece obtained may be increased on account 
of the larger percentage of wool grease found therein. Wool is 
composed chiefly of the protein substance keratin, containing 4 to 
5 per cent sulfur, in addition to the usual components of protein, 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (p. 22). Since the pro- 
duction of wool is a necessary accompaniment of sheep feeding, 
whether it is the main object sought or not, it follows that rations 
fed to sheep should contain considerable protein and have relatively 
narrow nutritive ratios, especially in the case of growing animals. 
We find, therefore, that the feeding standards call for a large 
amount of protein for growing sheep and breeding ewes. 

Fattening Sheep. — Mature fattening sheep do not, however, re- 
quire more protein in their feed than the same class of steers, since 
there is very little new formation of tissue in the case of these 
animals, the increase during the fattening period being made up 
largely of fat. This is shown by the analyses of sheep at different 
stages of fattening which were made by Lawes and Gilbert, of 
Eothamsted Experiment Station, about the middle of the last cen- 
tury. The composition of the increase from store to fattened con- 
dition, and from fat to very fat condition, is given below : 

Composition of Increase of Fattening Sheep, in Per Cent 





Dry 
substance 


Ash 


Protein 


Fat 


Increase from store to fat condition . 
Increase from fat to very fat condition 


78.0 
81.8 


2.12 
3.12 


7.16 
7.75 


68.8 
70.9 



21 



322 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



By comparing the figures given in the table with the correspond- 
ing data for fattening mature steers, it will be seen that sheep build 
up more fat and less protein (lean meat) during the fattening 
process than do steers, and the increase in weight consists of more 
dry substance than in case of these animals (p. 257). 

Eesults obtained by Henneberg and Kern with three mature 
wethers slaughtered at different stages of the fattening period 
illustrate the changes that occur in the composition of the carcass 
of sheep during fattening. 2 One wether was slaughtered and the 
carcass analyzed at the beginning of the trial, when in a lean con- 
dition ; another after 70 days of fattening, when half fat, and the 
third one at the end of 203 days of fattening, when extra fat. The 
table shows the contents of lean meat and fat in the case of three 
wethers : 

Effect of Fattening on the Carcasses of Mature Sheep 



Lean wether. . . . 
Half-fat wether . 
Extra fat wether 



Lean 
meat, 
pounds 



26.2 

25.9 
26.7 



Fat, 
pounds 



11.9 
33.2 
41.9 



We note that there was no material change in the content of 
lean meat in the three animals, but the per cent of fat in the carcass 
increased from about 12 to 42 per cent during the fattening process, 
assuming that the three wethers had a similar composition at the 
beginning of the trials. This increase in the per cent of fat was 
accompanied by a decrease in the water content of the carcass during 
the fattening, as has been previously shown. 

Weight of Lambs at Birth. — Lambs will weigh from six to ten 
pounds at birth, according to the size of the ewes and the breed. 
The average weight of single lambs of several breeds reported by 
Humphrey and Kleinheinz from records obtained with the Wis- 
consin station flock 3 was 9.5 pounds; of twins, 8.0 pounds; and of 
triplets, 6.8 pounds. The figures for the main breeds were, on the 
average, for Montana range sheep, Shropshire, and Southdowns be- 
tween 7 and 8 pounds; for Oxford and Cheviots between 8 and 9 
pounds, and for Hampshire and Downs between 9 and 10 pounds. 
Ram lambs average about one-half pound heavier at birth than ewe 
lambs. 



2 J. f. Landw., 2G, p. 549. 
8 Report 1007. 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 323 

Feeding Ewes. — Where individual attention can be given to 
the breeding ewes, as in the case of mutton breeds, it is desirable to 
secure as many twin lambs as possible, while under western range 
conditions one lamb to each ewe has been found to give the best 
results. If the ewes are in a vigorous, well-nourished condition 
when mated, they are more sure to breed and will give birth to 
more twins and triplets than when in a thin, run-down condition; 
hence the practice of " flushing " ewes has become common among 
breeders of mutton sheep; i.e., these are fed heavily for two or 
three weeks prior to breeding time by supplying plenty of easily 
digestible feed, like rape, cabbage, or grain, in addition to pasturage 
or dry roughage. Breeding ewes in good condition do not need 
much grain during the winter; one-half pound of a mixture of oats 
and wheat bran (3 to 1 by weight) per head daily for eWes weighing 
about 150 pounds is sufficient, with a couple of pounds of good dry 
roughage, like legume hay, oat hay, nice fodder corn, etc., and two 
to three pounds of succulent feeds, either silage or roots. Silage 
from nearly-matured corn, containing not too many ears, may be 
fed to advantage to pregnant ewes, but moldy, spoiled, or very acid 
silage must not be fed, nor frozen roots or silage. More silage may 
be fed after lambing, when feeds favoring the milk secretion are 
especially valuable. To avoid milk fever, but little grain is fed 
for a few days after lambing. After this period, when the danger of 
milk fever is passed, the ewes may be gradually brought over to 
a full grain allowance. Dry roughage and succulent feeds may be 
fed safely both before and after lambing. 

Ewes' milk contains, on the average, about 7 per cent of fat, but 
great variations occur in the composition of milk, both in case of 
ewes of different breeds and of ewes of the same breed. Konig gives 
2.16 and 12.78 per cent as the extremes of the per cent of fat in ewes' 
milk according to European analyses. At the Wisconsin station the 
milk from 1-4 ewes of six different breeds contained 12.2 per cent 
solids and 7.1 per cent fat on the average; the average daily milk 
yield from these ewes was 2.8 pounds. 4 

Feeding the Ram. — The ram must be kept in a vigorous, thrifty 
condition in order to give good service. No grain is necessary while 
on pasture, except a little for about a month prior to the breeding 
season. Fattening feeds should be avoided ; a common grain mixture 
consisting of oats and bran (2 to 1 by weight) can be fed in connec- 
tion with a good quality of hay. Clean, pure water and salt must be 
supplied as in the case of all sheen. 

4 Report 1904. 



324 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Feeding Lambs. — The dam's milk generally forms the sole 
feed of lambs during the first two or three weeks of their lives ; about 
this time they begin to nibble a little grain or hay, and should have 
access to both thereafter. A lamb creep should be provided where the 
ewes cannot eat the feed intended for the lambs; the creep or pen 
may be built at one side or corner of the barn with two boards, 1 x 
6 inches, of the desired length, to which are nailed vertical strips, 
1x4 inches wide and 3 feet long. The slats are placed far enough 
apart to let the lambs slip through. A low, flatbottom trough is 
placed within the space set apart for the lambs on which the grain 
is fed, like ground oats, bran, cracked corn, a little linseed meal, etc. 5 
Pure water should be supplied regularly. A creep should also be 
provided for the lambs as the ewes and lambs are let on to the 
pasture in the spring, where they may find their grain feed. This, in 
addition to the dam's milk and pasture, will enable them to make 
a rapid and healthy growth. The ewes will not, however, need any 
grain when on good pasture. In experiments at the Wisconsin 
station 6 it was found that lambs fed grain up to ten months old 
reached a given weight four to seven weeks sooner than when no 
grain was fed before weaning time, and the lambs were ready for 
the market at any time during this period, so that advantage might 
be taken of favorable market conditions. In experiments with dif- 
ferent grain feeds for unweaned Shropshire lambs for periods 
averaging ten weeks 0.3 to 0.4 pound of grain was eaten daily, 
with resulting average gains of about one-half pound per head 
daily. The following amounts of different grain feeds were re- 
quired per 100 pounds of gain in body weight: Wheat bran, 71 
pounds; corn meal (4 trials), 74 pounds; whole oats, 78 pounds; 
and cracked peas, 81 pounds. Unweaned lambs that go into the 
breeding flock should receive feeds like oats and peas, wheat or bran, 
while corn is preferable for lambs intended for the butcher, as it 
tends to produce a fat carcass. 

Stomach worms are a common sheep disease east of the Mississippi, 
especially in lambs, and are a serious drawback to American sheep raising. 
The eggs of the worms are distributed over the pasture in the droppings of 
the sheep, where they soon batch and are taken into the system of the sheep 
while grazing. Old infested pastures, especially blue-grass, are to be avoided 
in feeding sheep, and these are changed to clean, fresh pasture every two or 
three weeks, if possible, during the summer months. Rape pasture and other 
annual crops will prove of great value where the permanent pastures have 
become infested with worms. Where sheep are suffering from stomach 
worms, either of the following remedies may be resorted to: Gasoline, 

B Kleinheinz, " Sheep Management/' p. 65. 
6 Reports 1896 and 1903. 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 



325 



turpentine, or benzine. The dose for lambs is 5 ounces of cows' milk, 1 
tablespoonful each of gasoline and raw linseed oil, well mixed and given in a 
drenching bottle; for older sheep, 1% tablespoonfuls gasoline are given in 
the mixture. 

The general rules in regard to feeding sheep are similar to those 
for feeding other classes of farm animals. Regularity of feeding 
is all-important, as are cleanliness, gentle treatment, patience, and 
exercise of good judgment on the part of the feeder. 

Feeding Fattening Sheep. — The production of fat mutton 
sheep is of increasing importance in this country, and the industry 
is capable of still further development, as the quality of the mutton 
is improved by the feeding of special mutton sheep, and more people 
learn to appreciate tender, juicy mutton. As with other farm ani- 
mals, the largest and quickest returns are made by fattening young 
lambs. The influence of age and the results obtained in fattening 
sheep are illustrated by feeding trials with range sheep conducted 
at the Montana station. 7 Four lots of lambs, one- and two-year-old 
Avethers and aged ewes, about 55 in each lot, were fed on rations 
consisting of clover hay and whole barley for a period of 88 days. 
The main results obtained are shown in the following table : 

Fattening Range Sheep of Different Ages 



Average weight at beginning, pounds. 

Average daily gain, pounds 

Average ration: Clover hay, pounds. 

Barley, pounds 

Feed for 100 pounds gain: Clover hay 

Barley 
Digestible feed per pound increase. . . . 
Per cent dressed weight 



Lambs 


Yearling 
wethers 


Two-vear- 

old 

wethers 


63 
.27 
2.1 
.68 
763 
253 
10.2 
54.2 


95 
.27 
3.8 
.68 
1413 
256 
16.6 
52.9 


116 
.2S 
4.1 
.68 
1469 
248 
17.1 
53.6 



Aged 
ewes 



92 

.18 
2.3 
.68 
1320 
387 
17.5 
50.6 



The lambs made the most rapid and economical gains of the 
four lots. The amount of feed required for maintenance and in- 
crease in weight was smaller and the average percentage dressed 
weight was higher for this lot than for the older sheep. 

Clean, fresh drinking water should always be provided. The 
amount which sheep will take will vary with the character of the 
rations fed and the weather, from less than one quart per head when 
on succulent feed to five quarts or more when on dry feed only. 
Sheep fed dry roughage and concentrates crave salt, and even when 
on pasture it should be supplied regularly in order that they may 



7 Bulletin 35; also Bulletins 47 and 59. 



326 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

do well. Salt furnishes the ehlorin required for the hydrochloric 
acid of the gastric juice, and has also other important functions in 
the digestion of food (p. 24). 

Hot-house Lambs. — The most extreme method of fattening 
sheep is that of producing so-called hot-house lambs (Fig. 90). 
The term " hot-house " applies to lambs born in the late fall or early 
winter, which are fattened during the winter months and marketed 
in the early spring. The quarters in which the lambs are fed are 
not artificially heated, the name having reference to the fact that 
the lambs are produced under artificial conditions for a market 
willing to pay a very high price for a fancy article, in a similar way 




Fig. 90. — Grade Dorset lambs from Merino ewes make excellent hot-house lambs. (Peterson.) 

as in the case of ordinary hot-house products. The lambs must 
be in fat condition to sell as hot-house lambs. Dorsets or Dorset 
grades are best suited for lamb production, as the ewes will breed 
earlier than the usual time, viz., during the early summer, and the 
lambs will be dropped during October and November. The mother's 
milk is the best feed available, and ewes must be fed liberally on 
milk-producing feeds so as to give a maximum flow of milk. The 
ewes' milk is supplemented by grain feeds as the lambs grow older. 
The following grain mixtures were found to give good results in 
trials with hot-house lambs at Cornell station : 8 

8 Bulletin 309, which see for description of the method of management 
of a hot-house lamb producing flock throughout the year. 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 327 

(1) 50 pounds corn meal, 50 pounds wheat middlings, and 5 
pounds oil meal, 

(2) 25 pounds wheat bran, 25 pounds wheat middlings, 25 
pounds hominy meal, 8 pounds linseed meal. 

The lambs are fed grain in a separate pen (creep), as pre- 
viously explained. Rightly handled, hot-house lambs will make a 
sufficiently rapid growth to be ready for the market in ten to 
twelve weeks from birth. They will gain at least one-half pound 
each daily during this period, and will reach a weight of about 50 
pounds at slaughtering time. These lambs are generally marketed 
before March, as the prices in the East, where they are mostly 
produced, as a rule go down after this time. 

Early Spring Lambs. — Fattening early spring lambs has be- 
come an important industry in the South. By the use of Bermuda 
grass, bur clover, and Japan clover, permanent pasture may be 
available in this section ten months of the year, and temporary 
winter pasture may be resorted to the remaining two months, thus 
giving both ewes and lambs the advantage of pasturage during 
practically the entire year; the lambs may be fed grain separately 
and marketed during April to June, when good prices prevail. 9 In 
many cases the ewes are fed nothing but cotton-seed meal and 
cotton-seed hulls, the daily feed being .5 pound meal and 1.3 
pounds hulls; another cheap southern feed is soybean hay. 

Fall Lambs. — Fattening lambs are often carried until fall on 
pasturage, with a slight feed of grain, say one-half pound per head 
daily, and are sold at about eight months old, when they will weigh 
in the neighborhood of 100 pounds. Rape sown in the corn or on 
ground set apart especially for this crop will furnish excellent 
supplemental feed for such lambs, as well as for fattening sheep in 
general. If rape is grown by itself, it is either sown broadcast or 
in drills 30 inches apart, the advantage of the latter method being 
that a larger yield of green forage will be secured, and that the 
field can be kept free from weeds (p. 138). Movable hurdles are 
generally used where rape is pastured off by sheep or swine. 

Winter Lambs. — Another method is to fatten the lambs during 
the winter season. This is the common method practised in regions 
where lambs are fattened for market. In the East the lambs are 
generally kept in rectangular feeding pens with hay racks and 
grain troughs provided with vertical slats, making an opening for 
each lamb. They are put on full feed in about tbree weeks and 

"Alabama Bulletin 148; Missouri Circular 25; Tennessee Bulletin 84. 



328 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



fed grain until in the right condition for market. Water and salt 
are supplied in each pen. 

In the corn belt the common method is- to feed the lambs an 
abundance of good hay and to bring them slowly on to full grain 
ration, beginning with one-fourth pound per head daily and gradu- 




Fig. 91. — Range sheep in feed yards at Caldwell, Nevada. (Iddings.) 




Fig. 92. — A flock of sheep on a western range. {Pacific Rural Press.) 



ally increasing this to one pound per head daily in about three 
weeks, after which time they get all the grain they will clean up 
at each feeding; less hay is eaten as the lambs get on full grain 
feed. Lambs thus fed should make a gain of 25 to 30 pounds in 100 
days, when they will be ready for market. There is considerable 
variation in the choice of grain mixtures and other feeds. Corn 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 



329 



with wheat bran, oats, or linseed meal fed in varying proportions, 
according to the character of the available roughage and the market 
prices of the feeds, makes up the majority of the rations fed; other 
feeds are cotton-seed meal, soybeans, peas, and, of rough feeds, 
roots or silage, alfalfa or clover hay, corn fodder, etc. The lambs 
are often fattened in two droves in the corn belt, the first one being 
purchased in November and fed until the end of January, when 
the second lot is purchased and fattened by the first of May. 

In the western States extensive lamb and sheep feeding opera- 
tions are carried on each year (Figs. 91, 92, 93, 94). The sheep are 
usually separated into flocks of about 500 each and fed in lots 




Fig. 93. — Lamb-feeding corrals in Nevada. (Iddings.) 



arranged in rows with feeding lanes between. No shelter is pro- 
vided except what may be furnished by a hay or straw stack. The 
sheep are brought from the high summer ranges to these feeding 
points where alfalfa hay is available, and are fed all the hay they 
will eat until they are shipped. If grain is fed, they are given 
three-fourths to one pound daily per head, generally Indian corn, 
or barley or wheat in the far western States. Experiments at the 
New Mexico station 10 show that by an addition of corn to alfalfa 
hay an improved quality of mutton was obtained and the feeding 
period was shortened. The general conclusion drawn is that, with 



10 Bulletin 79. 



330 



PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



alfalfa alone, 11 it requires about 110 to 120 days to fit the lambs 
for the local market; with light grain ration (one-fourth pound 
per head per day), 100 to 110 days; with medium grain ration 
(one-half pound), 90 to 100 days, and with heavy grain ration 
(1 pound), 70 to 80 days. The gains were as great (but not as 
rapid) with one-fourth pound of corn per head daily as with one- 
half pound. The cost of the gain increased, however, with an in- 
crease in the grain ration. Other prominent feeds used for fatten- 
ing sheep in the West besides alfalfa are beet pulp and field peas 
(pp. 121 and 194). 

Western sheep men calculate that the wool pays the cost of the 
sheep feeding, and the mutton and lambs represent the profit of the 




Fig. 94. — Winter scene of range sheep in the Nevada mountains. (Doten.) 

business. Large numbers of wethers are shipped East every year 
from these States, especially to Chicago, and either go directly on 
the market, if sufficiently fat, or are fed at some feeding station 
near the market until they are in prime condition or can be dis- 
posed of to good advantage. While at these stations they are fed 
hay, corn, and, generally, grain screenings, at least in past years. 

Value of Various Grain Feeds for Fattening Lambs. — The 
following table shows the results of a large number of trials with 
various grains for fattening lambs, which will be of interest in this 
connection. In the last column of the table the number of feed 
units required per 100 pounds gain are given, assuming 2^2 pounds 

n Farmers' Bulletin 504, p. 9. 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 



331 



hay, 1.1 pounds oats or emmer, and 1 pound corn, wheat, barley, or 
screenings, to equal one feed unit; 2 pounds hay (alfalfa) in the 
western trials were assumed to be equal to one feed unit. 

Feeding Various Grains to Fattening Lambs * 



Concentrate 



Indian corn t 

Indian corn j 

Wheat, whole 

Oats, whole 

Barley, whole 

Emmer, whole 

Wheat screenings, whole. 





Average ration 


Aver- 


Feed per 100 


ber of 




age 
daily 
gain 


pounds gain 




trials 


Grain 


Hay 


Grain 


Hay 


4 


1.4 


1.0 


.29 


506 


350 


4 


1.3 


1.5 


.31 


429 


478 


5 


1.2 


1.4 


.25 


475 


583 


3 


1.0 


1.7 


.24 


423 


744 


5 


1.1 


1.9 


.30 


390 


639 


4 


1.3 


1.8 


.25 


537 


691 


4 


1.3 


1.4 


.26 


488 


567 



Num- 
ber of 
feed 
units 



646 
668 
708 
683 
646 
764 
715 



* Condensed from summary tables in Henry's "Feeds and Feeding." 
t Eastern stations. X Western stations. 

We note that there was but little difference in the nutritive 
effect of the corn and barley, the average daily gains made by the 
lambs on these grains being 0.3 pound; the other grains produced 
a gain of about one-fourth pound per head daily. Considering the 
feed requirements for the production of 100 pounds of gain, there 
were only slight differences between corn, barley, and oats, while 
whole wheat, screenings, and emmer gave the lowest returns per 
100 pounds feed units. 

Self-feeders similar to those used in the case of self-fed steers 
are employed by some sheep farmers in feeding fattening lambs, 
a supply of grain feeds sufficient for about a week or less being 
placed in the feeder. The lambs are able to take all the grain they 
want as it comes out at the bottom of the feed trough. As in the 
case of steer feeding, the experience of farmers with self-fed sheep 
has been both favorable and unfavorable, although the evidence 
seems, on the whole, more unfavorable than with self-fed steers. 
According to results obtained at the Michigan station, 12 " Fatten- 
ing lambs by means of a self-feeder is an expensive practice, and 
economy of production requires more attention to the variation 
in the appetites of the animals than can be given by this method." 
J. E. Wing, a noted authority, states 13 that not only is the death- 
rate much heavier where self-feeders are used, but the cost of gain 
is also much greater. It is evident, therefore, that the use of self- 
feeders for sheep cannot be recommended, except under conditions 

12 Bulletin 128. 

""Sheep Farming in America"; see alao Michigan Bulletin 113, 
Minnesota Bulletin 144, Colorado Bulletin 151. 



332 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

where large numbers of sheep are fed, and where labor is scarce 
and high. 

Rations for Fattening Sheep. — The rations given below will 
show the kinds and amounts of different feeding stuffs that ma]' be 
fed to fattening lambs weighing 80 to 100 pounds: 

1. 2 pounds clover hay, 1 pound wheat bran, iy 2 pounds corn. 

2. iy 2 pounds hay, \y 2 pounds roots, iy 2 pounds oats and wheat 
bran, equal weights. 

3. li/o pounds clover hay, 1 pound roots, 1 pound corn, y 2 
pound wheat bran. 

4. 3 pounds alfalfa hay, % pound corn. 




' v\ 



Fig. 95. — A flock of Angora goats in the California foothills. These goats will keep 
down underbrush; they furnish mohair fiber used in the manufacture of plush and other 
fabrics. 

5. 1 pound each cotton-seed hulls and cotton-seed meal. 

6. \y 2 pounds clover hay, 1 pound corn, 14 pound wheat bran, 
y 2 pound gluten feed. 

7. 2 pounds alfalfa hay, 2 pounds ground corn and oats. 

8. 2 pounds clover hay, \y 2 pounds soybeans, 14 pound wheat 
bran. 

Feeding Goats. — Goat raising is of importance as an industry 
in only four or five States in the Union, viz., in Texas, New Mexico, 
Arizona, Oregon, and California (Fig. 95). In 1910 there were 
nearly three million goats and kids in the United States, of which 
over a million were in Texas and about one-half million in New 
Mexico. Nearly three-quarters of the number of goats in the 
country were found within the borders of the five States mentioned. 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 



333 



The number of goats in other States is very small, and it is safe 
to say that the goats kept in them do not often receive any special 
attention as to feed or care ; they are, as a rule, kept in very small 
flocks and are left to browse and find their feed along the roadside, 
on vacant town lots, and in waste places. 

As in the case of sheep, there are two distinct types of goats: 
One kept on account of their fleece, and the other type for milk 
production. The former, which are by far the more numerous in 
this country, are represented by the Angora goat, whose fleece fur- 
nishes the mohair fiber ; the latter by imported milch breeds, espe- 




Fig. 96. — An imported Swiss milch goat. (Toggenburg.) These goats will produce over 1000 
pounds of milk per year, or about one-fourth as much as an ordinary dairy cow. (Peterson.) 

cially Swiss milch goats. Angoras in the far western States and in 
the north central States serve a useful purpose in keeping down 
the underbrush; in California and other western States they are 
used for keeping the fire lines in the forest reserves open and free 
from underbrush. The goats greatly relish the fresh leaves and 
buds and tender twigs of bushes and deciduous trees, and keep in 
good, healthy condition on this feed with what pasturage they may 
find. Grain is only fed when they are fattened for slaughtering. 
Milch Goats. — While the Angora goats will do well on brush- 
wood alone, the milch goats require a more varied feed to give milk 
of good quality and flavor and to produce milk during a full lacta- 
tion period (Fig. 96). Goats' milk contains about 4.8 per cent 



334 PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

butter fat, on the average (p. 206). A common doe will give a 
couple of pounds of milk a day for five or six months, while a good 
milch goat will yield three to four times this amount and con- 
tinue to produce milk from eight to ten months. Goats are easy 
keepers, they require but little care and attention, and are economi- 
cal milk producers. They are often spoken of as " the poor man's 
cow," on account of their low cost of keep and because they are 
generally kept by people who cannot afford to buy a cow; three or 
four milch goats will produce as much milk as a good cow ; on the 
other hand, it is stated on good authority that eight goats can 
subsist and yield a good flow of milk upon the amount of feed that 
is required for one cow. 14 

Milch goats should receive a supply of good hay, preferably 
leguminous, such as clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, etc., throughout the 
year. Fine, bright corn fodder, straw, or other dry feed may also 
be given in amounts of two to four pounds per head daily, when 
they are not on grass. Good vegetable kitchen refuse may often be 
fed to advantage. Oats, barley, and wheat bran are excellent grain 
feeds for goats, one-half to one pound per head being the average 
daily allowance. These may be fed separately or equal weights of 
each mixture. A little linseed meal, two to three ounces a day 
per head, makes a valuable addition to the ration ; somewhat heavier 
grain feeding, viz., up to one and one-half or even two pounds per 
head daily, will pay well during the early part of the lactation, in 
the case of milch goats of exceptional productive capacity. Pure 
water and salt should be supplied regularly, as in the case of sheep. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the two types of sheep kept in this country, and give the sections 

where each type is mainly kept. 

2. Give several reasons why it is desirable to keep sheep on most farms. 

3. How is the production of wool influenced by the method of feeding 

practised ? 

4. Give the average weight of lambs at birth. 

5. Discuss briefly the method of feeding (a) rams, (b) ewes, (c) lambs. 

6. State the methods followed in fattening ( a ) sheep, ( b ) hot-house 

lambs, (c) early spring lambs, (d) fall lambs, (e) winter lambs. 

7. Give the principal methods adapted in fattening western sheep. 

8. State the value of the self-feeder in fattening sheep. 

9. Name tbe two types of goats kept in this country, and state in what 

section each one is most important. 

10. Give the method of feeding goats generally found in your locality. 

11. What relation have goats to forestry work in this country? 

12. How much milk will an average milch goat produce in a year, and what 

is the quality of the milk compared with cows' milk? 

13. Why is the goat called " the poor man's cow "? 

14 Thompson, " Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats," p. 200, 



FEEDING SHEEP AND GOATS 335 

Literature on Sheep and Goats. — Craig, " Sheep Farming," New York, 
1913. Kleinheinz, " Sheep Management," Madison, Wis., 1912. Powers, 
" The American Merino," New York, 1907. Doane, " Sheep Feeding and 
Farm Management," Boston, 1912. Stewart, " The Domestic Sheep," Chicago, 
1900. Wing, " Sheep Farming in America," Chicago. Miller and Wing, 
" The Winter Lamb," Mechanicsburg, Ohio, 1907. Shaw, " Sheep Husbandry 
in Minnesota," St. Paul, Minn., 1901. " Shepherd Boy," " Modern Sheep, 
Breeds and Management," Chicago, 1907. Wrightson, " Sheep, Breeds and 
Management," London, 1903. Shaw and Heller, " The Management of Sheep 
on the Farm," Farmers' Bulletin 20, 1894. Craig, " Sheep Feeding," Farmers' 
Bulletin 49, 1897. Curtiss, " Raising Sheep for Mutton," Farmers' Bulletin 
96, 1899. Thompson, " Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats," Chicago, 
1903. Schreiner, " The Angora Goat," New York, 1898. Thompson, " Infor- 
mation Concerning the Milch Goat," Bureau Animal Industry, U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, Bulletin 08, 1905. Thompson and Shaw, " The 
Angora Goat," Farmers' Bulletin 137, 1908. Heller, " The Angora Goat," 
Farmers' Bulletin 573. 

Experiment Station Publications. — Colo., b. 32, 52, 75, 76; 111., b. 129, 
166; c. 125; Ind., b. 147, 162; Iowa, b. 17, 18, 33, 35, 48, 63, 110; c. 6; 
Mich., b. 84, 107, 114, 128, 136, 178, 220; Minn., b. 44, 57, 59, 75, 78; 
Mo., b. 115; Mont., b. 21, 27, 35, 39, 47, 59; Neb., b. 66, 71; N. H., c. 16; 
N. Y. (Cornell), b. 309; Ohio, b. 179, 187; Okla., b. 78; S. D., b. 71, 86; 
Utah, b. 78, 90; Wis., r. '97, '04, '05; b. 32, 41, 58; Wyo., b. 47, 51, 64, 68, 
69, 73, 81; Ont. (Guelph), r. 91; Farmers' Bulletins 49, 98, 556; U. S. Bur. 
An. Ind. b. 77; c. 18. 



APPENDIX 

Table I. — Average Composition and Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs, 

in Per Cent 



Feeding stuffs 



A. Roughage: 

Green Feeds: 

Alfalfa 

Alsike clover 

Barley fodder 

Bermuda grass. . . . 
Burr clover 

Canada field pea . . 
Common millet . . . 

Cow pea 

Crimson clover. . . . 
Horse bean 

Hungarian grass . . 
Indian corn fodder 
Italian rye grass 
Japanese millet . 
Johnson grass. . . 

Kentucky blue 
grass 

Mammoth red 
clover 

Meadow fescue, in 
bloom 

Oat fodder 

Oats and vetch 

Orchard grass, in 

bloom 

Pasture grass 

Peas and oats 

Red clover 

Red top, in bloom . 

Rye fodder 

Serradella 

Sorghum fodder. . 

Soybean 

Sweet clover 















Digestible 


















Moist- 
ure 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


Fiber 


gen- 
free 
extract 


Ash 


Pro- 
tein 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and fat 


71.8 


4.8 


1.0 


7.4 


12.3 


2.7 


3.6 


13.0 


74.8 


3.9 


.9 


7.4 


11.0 


2.0 


2.6 


12.5 


79.0 


2.7 


.6 


7.9 


8.0 


.6 


1.9 


11.1 


71.7 


2.2 


.9 


5.9 


17.2 


2.1 


1.3 


14.3 


73.8 


5.5 


2.0 


5.9 


10.5 


2.3 


3.6 


13.5 


84.7 


2.8 


.5 


4.4 


6.3 


1.3 


1.8 


7.6 


80.0 


1.5 


.3 


6.5 


10.5 


1.0 


.8 


11.5 


85.0 


2.8 


.4 


3.5 


6.3 


2.0 


2.1 


7.7 


80.9 


3.1 


.7 


5.2 


8.4 


1.7 


2.4 


10.2 


84.2 


2.8 


.4 


4.9 


6.5 


1.2 


2.3 


7.8 


71.1 


3.1 


.7 


9.2 


14.2 


1.7 


2.0 


16.8 


79.3 


1.8 


.5 


5.0 


12.2 


1.2 


1.0 


12.8 


73.2 


3.1 


1.3 


6.8 


13.3 


2.5 


1.5 


14.2 


75.0 


2.1 


.5 


7.8 


13.1 


1.5 


1.1 


14.3 


75.0 


1.2 


.3 


8.9 


13.2 


1.4 


.6 


14.2 


65.1 


4.1 


1.3 


9.1 


17.6 


2.8 


2.8 


21.5 


80.0 


3.0 


.4 


5.8 


8.9 


1.9 


2.0 


9.6 


69.9 


2.4 


.8 


10.8 


14.3 


1.8 


1.6 


19.7 


62.2 


3.4 


1.4 


11.2 


19.3 


2.5 


2.5 


20.5 


80.0 


3.0 


.5 


6.3 


8.4 


1.8 


2.3 


10.5 


73.0 


2.6 


.9 


8.2 


13.2 


2.0 


1.2 


14.5 


80.0 


3.5 


.8 


4.0 


9.7 


2.0 


2.5 


11.2 


79.7 


2.4 


.6 


6.1 


9.6 


1.6 


1.8 


11.1 


70.8 


4.4 


1.1 


8.1 


13.5 


2.1 


2.9 


16.5 


65.3 


2.8 


.9 


11.0 


17.7 


2.3 


1.9 


22.4 


76.6 


2.6 


.6 


11.6 


6.8 


1.8 


2.1 


15.0 


79.5 


2.7 


.7 


5.4 


8.6 


3.2 


2.1 


9.8 


79.4 


1.3 


.5 


6.1 


11.6 


1.1 


.6 


13.1 


75.1 


4.0 


1.0 


6.7 


10.6 


2.6 


3.1 


12.1 


80.0 


3.8 


.6 


6.3 


7.4 


1.9 


2.5 


9.3 



1 Coming into bloom. 



22 



337 



338 



APPENDIX 



Table I. — Average Composition and Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs, 
in Per Cent — Continued 

















Digestible 




















Feeding stuffs 


Moist- 
ure 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


Fiber 


gen- 
free 
extract 


Ash 


Pro- 
tein 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and fat 


A. Roughage — Con. 


















Green Feeds — Con. 


















Timothy, different 




















61.6 

82.2 


3.1 
3.5 


1.2 

.7 


11.8 
5.1 


20.2 
6.6 


2.1 
1.9 


1.5 
2.7 


21.3 


Velvet bean 


9.3 


Vetch, spring 


85.0 


2.7 


.4 


4.5 


6.1 


1.4 


1.9 


7.1 


Vetch, winter, or 


















sand 


85.3 


3.6 


.4 


4.0 


4.6 


2.1 


2.8 


7.1 


Wheat and vetch. . 


80.0 


3.4 


.5 


6.4 


8.1 


1.6 


2.6 


11.0 


Wheat fodder 


77.3 


2.4 


.7 


5.9 


11.9 


1.8 


1.7 


12.9 


Hay from Grasses: 


















Barley hay 


15.0 


8.8 


2.4 


24.7 


44.9 


4.2 


5.7 


45.9 


Bermuda grass. . . . 


7.1 


10.7 


2.9 


25.0 


51.0 


3.5 


6.4 


48.5 


Cornstalks (stover) 


40.5 


3.8 


1.1 


19.7 


31.5 


3.4 


1.4 


32.8 


Fodder corn, field- 


















cured 


42.4 


4.5 


1.6 


14.3 


34.7 


2.7 


2.5 


37.3 


Foxtail 


12.0 


7.5 


1.8 


33.5 


39.8 


5.4 


4.3 


43.4 


Hungarian grass . . 


7.7 


7.5 


2.1 


27.7 


49.0 


6.0 


5.0 


49.4 


Italian rye grass . 


8.5 


7.5 


1.7 


30.5 


45.0 


6.9 


4.5 


45.4 


Johnson grass 


10.2 


7.2 


2.1 


28.5 


45.9 


6.1 


2.9 


47.4 


Kafir forage 


52.1 


2.5 


1.8 


21.0 


20.1 


2.4 


1.1 


24.8 


Kentucky blue 


















grass 


21.2 


7.8 


3.9 


23.0 


37.8 


6.3 


4.4 


41.3 


Marsh grass 


10.4 


5.5 


2.4 


30.0 


44.1 


7.7 


3.1 


41.7 


Meadow fescue . . . 


20.0 


7.0 


2.7 


25.9 


38.4 


6.8 


4.2 


40.3 


Milo forage 


40.9 


2.9 


2.3 


19.1 


31.8 


2.9 


1.2 


30.3 


Mixed grasses. . . 


15.3 


7.4 


2.5 


27.2 


42.1 


5.5 


4.2 


44.9 


Native hay 


6.6 


8.5 


3.8 


29.9 


44.6 


6.6 


4.8 


53.8 


Oat hay 


14.0 
9.9 


8.9 
8.1 


2.8 
2.6 


27.4 
32.4 


41.2 
41.0 


5.7 
6.0 


4.7 
4.9 


40.5 


Orchard grass 


45.6 


Red top 


8.9 
16.6 


7.9 
11.6 


1.9 
3.1 


28.6 
22.5 


47.5 
39.4 


5.2 

6.8 


4.8 
8.0 


49.1 


Rowen (mixed) . . . 


45.4 


Smooth brome 


















grass 


14.3 


9.7 


2.2 


22.8 


41.6 


9.4 


6.6 


47.9 


Sweet sorghum 


















forage 


41.7 
18.9 


3.2 

7.6 


2.9 
2.6 


17.0 

24.9 


32.2 
36.0 


3.0 
9.9 


1.3 
4.2 


29.6 


Teosinte 


46.6 


Timothy 


13.2 


5.9 


2.5 


29.0 


45.0 


4.4 


2.8 


45.3 







APPENDIX 



339 



Table I. — Average Corn-position cmd Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs, 
in Per Cent — Continued 



Feeding stuffs 



A. Roughage — Con 
Hay from Legumes: 

Alfalfa 

Alsike clover 

Cowpea 

Crimson clover 
Florida beggar 
weed 

Japan clover. 
Mammoth red 

clover 

Oat and pea .... 

Peanut vines 

Red clover 

Soybean 

Sweet clover .... 
Velvet bean . . . 
Winter vetch ... 

Straw, Chaff, etc. 
Barley straw. .... 

Buckwheat 

Flax shives 

Horse bean 

Lima bean 

Millet 

Oat chaff 

Oat straw 

Rye straw 

Soybean 

Wheat chaff 

Wheat straw 

Roots, Tubers, etc. 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Cassava 

Chufa 

Jerusalem a r t i 
choke 















Diges 


Moist- 
ure 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


Fiber 


gen- 
free 

extract 


Ash 


Pro- 
tein 


8.1 


14.6 


2.1 


28.9 


37.4 


8.8 


10.5 


9.7 


12.8 


2.9 


25.6 


40.7 


8.3 


8.4 


10.5 


14.2 


2.6 


21.2 


42.6 


8.9 


9.2 


9.6 


15.2 


.2.8 


27.2 


36.6 


8.6 


10.5 


9.2 


11.8 


2.9 


29.3 


42.1 


4.7 


6.S 


11.0 


13.8 


3.7 


24.0 


39.0 


8.5 


9.1 


21.2 


10.7 


3.9 


24.5 


33.6 


6.1 


6.2 


10.0 


10.3 


2.6 


28.3 


41.2 


7.1 


7.6 


7.6 


10.7 


4.6 


23.6 


42.7 


10.8 


6.7 


15.3 


12.3 


3.3 


24.8 


38.1 


6.2 


7.1 


11.8 


14.9 


4.3 


24.2 


37.8 


7.0 


10.6 


9.2 


18.0 


3.2 


28.0 


41.8 


9.9 


11.9 


10.0 


14.0 


1.8 


37.7 


30.6 


5.9 


9.6 


11.3 


17.0 


2.3 


25.4 


36.1 


7.9 


11.9 


14.2 


3.5 


1.5 


36.0 


39.0 


5.7 


.9 


9.9 


5.2 


1.3 


43.0 


35.1 


5.5 


1.2 


10.0 


5.1 


3.1 


42.7 


35.2 


3.9 


1.2 


9.2 


8.8 


1.4 


37.6 


34.3 


8.7 


4.3 


10.0 


10.7 


1.9 


21.1 


46.7 


9.6 


5.4 


15.0 


4.1 


1.8 


34.2 


39.7 


5.2 


.9 


14.3 


4.0 


1.5 


34.0 


36.2 


10.0 


1.5 


9.2 


4.0 


2.3 


37.0 


42.4 


5.1 


1.3 


7.1 


3.0 


1.2 


38.9 


46.6 


3.2 


.7 


10.1 


4.6 


1.7 


40.4 


37.4 


5.8 


2.3 


14.3 


4.5 


1.4 


36.0 


34.6 


9.2 


1.2 


9.6 


3.4 


1.3 


38.1 


43.4 


4.2 


.8 


90.0 


2.6 


.2 


.9 


5.5 


.8 


2.3 


88.6 


1.1 


.4 


1.3 


7.6 


1.0 


.8 


66.0 


1.1 


.2 


1.8 


30.2 


.7 


.8 


79.5 


.7 


6.6 


2.2 


10.5 


.4 


.6 


79.5 


2.6 


.2 


.8 


15.9 


1.0 


1.3 



Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and fat 



42.5 
42.2 
42.2 
37.6 

46.4 

40.9 

39.4 
43.9 
49.0 
41.9 

43.6 
37.8 
55.7 
44.3 



41.5 
38.5 
36.7 
41.3 
41.5 

35.9 
34.6 
41.3 
40.5 
42.4 

26.8 
36.1 



6.1 

8.4 

29.4 

21.7 

15.2 



340 



APPENDIX 



Table I. — Average Composition and Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs, 
in Per Cent — Continued 



Feeding stuffs 



Moist- 
ure 



Pro- 
tein 



Fat 


Fiber 


.2 


1.2 


.2 


.9 


.2 


1.0 


.2 


1.2 


.1 


.4 


.4 


1.7 


.5 


2.1 


.2 


1.3 


.1 


.9 


.7 


1.1 


.2 


1.2 


1.9 


4.4 


.4 


1.2 


.9 


2.9 


2.4 


46.6 


.6 


3.6 


.9 


15.1 


4.5 


25.8 


.3 


2.4 


.5 


3.9 


.4 


2.2 


1.1 


3.8 


1.1 


3.3 


1.2 


9.0 


1.0 


7.2 


.8 


7.2 


1.1 


5.2 


.9 


6.5 


1.5 


6.0 


1.6 


13.0 


.7 


7.0 



Nitro- 
gen- 
free 

extract 



Ash 



Digestible 



Pro- 
tein 



A. Roughage — Con. 
Roots, Tubers, etc. — 
Con. 

Kohlrabi 

Mangel 

Parsnip 

Pie melon 

Potato 



Pumpkin 

Rape 

Rutabaga 
Sugar beet . . . 
Sweet potato . 

Turnip 



Miscellaneous Coarse 
Feeds: 

Acorns 

Apples 

Apple pomace 

Brush feed 

Cane cacti 



Icelandic moss . . . 

Oak leaves 

Prickly pear 

Salt bush 

Sugar beet leaves. 

Silage: 

Alfalfa 

Apple pomace 

Barley 

Barnyard millet 

and soybean. 
Corn and soybeans 

Corn cannery 

refuse 

Corn stover 

Cowpea 

Canada field pea . . 
Durra 



88.5 
90.9 
88.3 
94.5 
79.1 

90.9 

85.7 
88.6 
86.5 
68.3 

90.1 



55.3 

80.8 

83.0 

5.0 

78.5 

64.4 

4.9 

84.2 

75.8 
88.0 



74.4 
85.0 
74.0 

79.0 
76.0 



83.8 
73.7 
79.3 
50.1 
79.7 



1.3 
1.4 
1.6 
.8 
2.1 

1.3 
2.2 
1.2 
1.8 
1.9 

1.3 



2.5 
.7 
1.0 
5.4 
1.4 

1.0 
9.5 

.7 
3.5 
2.6 



4.8 
1.2 
2.6 

2.8 
2.5 



1.4 

2.2 
2.7 
5.9 
1.2 



8.1 
5.5 

10.2 

2.9 

17.4 

5.2 
7.0 
7.5 
9.8 

26.8 

6.3 



34.8 
16.6 
11.6 
37.9 
12.3 

18.0 
45.1 

9.0 
10.5 

4.4 



8.9 

8.8 

10.7 

7.2 
11.1 



7.9 
15.1 

7.6 
26.0 

9.5 



.7 
1.1 
.7 
.4 
.9 

.5 
2.5 
1.2 

.9 
1.1 

.9 



1.0 

.4 

.6 

2.7 

3.6 

.6 
9.7 
3.1 
5.8 
2.4 



5.1 

.6 

2.5 

2.8 
2.4 



.6 
1.6 
2.9 
3.5 

1.8 



.9 
1.0 
1.1 

.7 
1.1 

1.0 
2.0 
1.0 
1.3 



2.1 

.8 
.5 1 
3.0 
.9 

.5 1 
3.2 

.4 
2.2 
1.9 



2.3 

.7 

1.8 

1.6 
1.6 



1.1 

1.5 

3.4 

.3 



1 Assumed. 



APPENDIX 



341 



Table I. — Average Composition and Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs, 
in Per Cent — Continued 

















Digestible 




















Feeding stuffs 


Moist- 
ure 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


Fiber 


gen- 
free 
extract 


Ash 


Pro- 
tein 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and fat 


A. Roughage — Con. 


















Silage — Con. 


















Indian corn 


73.6 


2.7 


.9 


7.8 


12.9 


2.1 


1.4 


15.8 


Kafir corn 


67.2 


2.1 


1.4 


11.2 


15.2 


2.9 


.6 


16.7 


Millet 


74.0 


1.7 


.8 


7.5 


13.6 


2.4 


.2 


14.5 


Milo maize 


74.6 


2.2 


.7 


7.9 


12.7 


1.8 


.6 


12.9 


Oats 


72.0 

77.0 


2.2 
1.9 


1.2 
1.4 


9.4 
9.1 


13.1 

8.6 


2.1 

2.0 


1.5 
1.1 


16.8 


Orchard grass 


12.9 


Pea cannery refuse 


76.8 


2.8 


1.3 


6.5 


11.3 


1.3 


2.1 


14.9 


Red clover 


72.0 


4.2 


1.2 


8.4 


11.6 


2.6 


2.0 


15.7 


Rye 


80.8 
76.1 

74.2 


2.4 

.8 

4.1 


.3 
.3 

2.2 


5.8 
6.4 

9.7 


9.2 
15.3 

7.0 


1.6 
1.1 

2.8 


.7 
.6 

2.7 


9.5 


Sorghum 


15.4 


Soybean 


11.7 


Sugar beet leaves 




and tops 


76.0 


2.0 


1.0 


3.0 


14.3 


3.7 


1.3 


9.1 


Sugar beet pulp . . . 


90.0 


1.5 


.4 


3.1 


4.7 


.3 


1.1 


5.2 


Wet brewers' 


















grains 


70.3 


6.3 


2.1 


4.5 


15.6 


1.2 


4.6 


15.6 


B. Concentrates: 


















Grains and Seeds: 


















Barley 


10.8 


12.0 


1.8 


4.2 


68.7 


2.5 


9.4 


75.9 


Broom corn 


12.8 


9.9 


3.2 


7.0 


64.3 


2.8 


4.6 


45.6 


Buckwheat 


13.4 


10.8 


2.4 


11.7 


59.7 


2.0 


8.1 


53.2 


Canada field pea . . 


15.0 


23.7 


.8 


7.9 


50.2 


2.4 


19.7 


50.2 


Corn-and-cob meal 


15.1 


8.5 


3.5 


6.6 


64.8 


1.5 


4.4 


66.5 


Corn meal 


15.0 


9.2 


3.8 


1.9 


68.7 ' 


1.4 


6.7 


72.2 


Cotton seed 


9.9 


19.4 


19.5 


22.6 


23.9 


4.7 


12.5 


68.9 


Cowpea 


14.6 


20.5 


1.5 


3.9 


56.3 


3.2 


16.8 


57.4 


Egyptian corn .... 


12.6 


10.0 


3.9 


1.9 


69.7 


1.9 


4.6 


45.8 


Emmer 


8.0 
9.2 


11.5 
22.6 


2.2 
33.7 


11.1 
7.1 


62.9 
23.2 


3.9 
4.3 


10.0 
20.6 


60.2 


Flaxseed 


82.4 


Grain screenings 




(wheat) 


11.6 


12.5 


3.0 


4.9 


65.1 


2.9 


9.6 


52.5 


Horse bean 


11.3 


26.6 


1.0 


7.2 


50.1 


3.8 


23.1 


51.6 


Indian corn, dent . 


10.6 


10.3 


5.0 


2.2 


70.4 


1.5 


7.8 


76.5 


Indian corn, flint . . 


11.3 


10.5 


5.0 


1.7 


70.1 


1.4 


8.0 


75.9 


Indian corn, sweet 


8.8 


11.6 


8.1 


2.8 


66.8 


1.9 


8.8 


79.5 


Kafir corn 


9.9 


11.2 


3.1 


2.7 


71.5 


1.6 


5.2 


47.5 


Millet 


12.1 
9.0 


10.9 
10.7 


3.5 

2.8 


8.1 
3.0 


62.6 
72.2 


2.8 
2.3 


7.1 
4.9 


54.1 


Milo maize 


47.7 


Oats 


10.4 


11.4 


4.8 


10.8 


59.4 


3.2 


10.7 


62.3 







342 



APPENDIX 



Table I. — Average Composition and Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs, 
in Per Cent — Continued 

















Digestible 




















Feeding stuffs 


Moist- 
ure 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


Fiber 


gen- 
free 
extract 


Ash 


Pro- 
tein 


Car- 
bohy- 
drates 
and fat 


B. Concentrates — 


















Con. 


















Grains and Seeds — 


















Con. 


















Rice, hulled 


12.4 


7.4 


.4 


.2 


79.2 


.4 


6.4 


80.1 


Rye 


8.7 


11.3 


1.9 


1.5 


74.5 


2.1 


9.5 


72.1 


Sorghum 


12.8 


9.1 


3.6 


2.6 


69.8 


2.1 


4.5 


67.4 


Soybean 


11.7 


33.5 


17.2 


4.5 


28.3 


4.8 


29.1 


56.2 


Wheat, all analyses 


10.5 


11.9 


2.1 


1.8 


71.9 


1.8 


8.8 


70.9 


Wheat, spring 


10.4 


12.5 


2.2 


1.8 


71.2 


1.9 


9.3 


69.8 


Wheat, winter. . . . 


10.5 


11.8 


2.1 


1.8 


72.0 


1.8 


8.7 


70.4 


Factory By-products: 


















Barley feed 


8.9 


13.8 


3.9 


9.1 


59.9 


4.4 


11.5 


66.8 


Beet molasses 


20.8 


9.1 






59.5 


10.6 


4.7 


54.1 


Beet pulp, dried. . . 


8.4 


8.1 


".7 


17.5 


60.8 


4.5 


4.1 


64.9 


Beet pulp, wet ... . 


89.8 


.9 




2.4 


6.3 


.6 


.5 


7.7 


Brewers' grains, 


















dried 


8.7 


25.0 


6.7 


13.6 


42.3 


3.7 


20.0 


45.7 


Brewers' grains, 


















wet 


75.7 


5.4 


1.6 


3.8 


12.5 


1.0 


4.9 


11.4 


Buckwheat bran . . 


8.2 


12.6 


3.5 


32.9 


37.9 


4.9 


5.9 


38.5 


Buckwheat feed. . . 


11.6 


18.3 


4.9 


19.2 


42.1 


3.9 


15.6 


48.1 


Buckwheat hulls. . 


13.2 


4.6 


1.1 


43.5 


35.3 


2.2 


1.2 


29.7 


Buckwheat mid- 


















dlings 


12.8 


26.7 


6.8 


4.4 


44.3 


5.0 


22.7 


51.2 


Cane molasses .... 


25.9 


2.7 






65.1 


6.3 


1.4 


59.2 


Coconut meal , 


14.1 


19.5 


10.4 


9.5 


42.1 


4.4 


16.4 


64.2 


Cold-pressed cot- 


















ton-seed cake . . . 


7.6 


24.2 


9.7 


21.1 


32.5 


4.9 


17.9 


47.6 


Corn bran 


9.4 


11.2 


6.2 


11.9 


60.1 


1.2 


6.0 


63.4 


Corn cobs 


10.7 


2.4 


.5 


30.1 


54.9 


1.4 


.5 


44.8 


Cotton-seed hulls. 


11.3 


4.2 


2.2 


45.3 


34.1 


2.7 


.4 


34.8 


Cotton-seed meal . 


7.0 


45.3 


10.2 


6.3 


24.6 


6.6 


37.6 


43.0 


Dried distillers' 


















grains 


7.6 


31.2 


12.2 


11.6 


35.4 


2.0 


22.8 


65.8 


Germ oil meal 


8.6 


21.7 


11.2 


3.8 


47.3 


2.4 


15.8 


63.1 


Gluten feed 


9.2 


25.0 


3.5 


6.8 


53.5 


2.0 


21.3 


59.3 


Gluten meal 


9.5 


33.8 


6.6 


2.0 


46.6 


1.5 


29.7 


56.2 


Hominy meal 


9.6 


10.5 


8.0 


4.9 


64.3 


2.7 


6.8 


77.2 


Linseed meal, new- 


















process 


9.0 


37.5 


2.9 


8.9 


36.4 


5.5 


31.5 


41.1 


Linseed meal, old- 


















process 


9.8 


33.9 


7.8 


7.3 


35.9 


5.5 


30.2 


47.5 


Malt sprouts 


9.5 


26.3 


1.6 


11.6 


44.9 


6.1 


20.3 


49.2 



APPENDIX 



343 



Table L- 



- Average Composition and Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs, 
in Per Cent — Continued 

















Digestible 












Nitro- 








Feeding stuffs 


Moist- 
ure 


Pro- 
tein 


Fat 


Fiber 


gen 

free 

extract 


Ash 


Pro- 
tein 


Car- | 
bohy- 
drates 
and fat 


B. Concentrates — 


















Con. 


















Factory By-products 


















—Con. 


















Molasses beet pulp 


7.0 


9.6 


.5 


16.1 


61.3 


5.5 


6.1 


68.7 


Oat dust 


6.5 

7.0 

8.8 


13.5 
8.0 

16.2 


4.8 
2.9 
6.9 


18.2 

21.5 

7.1 


50,2 
55.3 
56.5 


6.9 
5.3 

4.5 


5.1 
5.2 

13.1 


38.0 


Oat feed 


36.0 


Oat shorts 


72.3 


Peanut meal 


10.7 


47.6 


8.0 


5.1 


23.7 


4.9 


42.9 


38.3 


Red-dog flour 


9.9 


18.4 


4.0 


3.0 


63.5 


2.6 


16.2 


64.7 


Rice bran 


9.7 


11.9 


10.1 


12.0 


46.6 


9.7 


7.6 


55.2 


Rice hulls 


8.8 


3.2 


1.0 


36.2 


35.2 


15.6 


.3 


20.1 


Rice meal 


10.2 


12.0 


13.1 


5.4 


51.2 


8.1 


7.4 


75.1 


Rice polish 


10.8 


11.9 


7.2 


3.3 


62.3 


4.8 


7.9 


70.5 


Rye bran 


11.6 
12.4 


14.6 
15.7 


2.8 
3.1 


3.5 
4.1 


63.9 
61.5 


3.4 
3.2 


11.2 
12.6 


52.9 


Rye feed 


62.9 


Rye middlings .... 


11.8 


14.3 


2.9 


2.4 


66.9 


1.7 


11.0 


58.8 


Soybean meal .... 


12.6 


41.4 


7.2 


5.3 


2S.2 


5.3 


36.0 


34.3 


Wheat bran 


11.9 


15.4 


4.0 


9.0 


53.9 


5.8 


11.9 


47.6 


Wheat middlings, 


















flour 


10.0 


19.2 


4.8 


3.2 


59.6 


3.2 


16.9 


62.8 


Wheat middlings, 




standard (shorts) 


11.2 


16.9 


5.1 


6.2 


56.2 


4.4 


13.0 


55.8 


Animal Feeds: 


















Bone meal (raw) . 


8.0 


23.9 


.3 




3.4 


64.4 


19.1 1 




Buttermilk 


90.4 


4.0 


.5 




4.4 


.7 


3.8 


5.5 


Cows' milk, colos- 


















trum 


74.6 

87.3 


17.6 
3.4 


3.6 
3.7 




2.7 
4.9 


1.6 

.7 


16.7 
3.2 


10.8 


Cows' milk, normal 


13.2 


Dried blood 


8.5 


84.4 


2.5 






4.7 


60.8 


5.6 


Fish meal 


10.8 


48.4 


11.6 






29.2 


45.0 


25.7 


Meat meal 


10.7 


71.2 


13.7 




.3 


4.1 


66.2 


30.2 


Skim milk 


90.5 


3.5 


.2 




4.9 


.9 


3.3 


5.4 


Tankage 


7.0 


53.9 


11.8 


5.8 


5.6 


15.9 


50.1 


26.1 


Whey 


93.4 


.9 


1.3 




4.8 


.6 


.9 


7.7 



1 Assumed. 



344 



APPENDIX 



Table II. — Ready Reference Tables of Composition of Feeds. 

(Hills.) 

The following tables save calculations of percentages; since the weights 
and contents are given in pounds, it is only necessary to find the kind and 
desired amount of a certain feed, and the tables give the exact feed contents 
in pounds; e.g., 15 pounds of green fodder corn contain 3.1 pounds of dry 
matter, 0.17 pound of digestible protein, and 1.9 pounds digestible carbo- 
hydrates and fat. 



Pounds of 
feed 



Green 
fodders 



2V 2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



2V 2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



2V 2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



J3£' 



Pasture grass 
1 : 4.8 



0.5 


0.06 


1.0 


0.12 


2.0 


0.23 


3.0 


0.35 


4.0 


0.46 


5.0 


0.58 


6.0 


0.69 


7.0 


0.81 


8.0 


0.92 



0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.2 
2.8 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 



Green fodder 
corn, 1 : 11.7 



0.5 


0.03 


1.0 


0.06 


2.1 


0.11 


3.1 


0.17 


4.1 


0.22 


5.2 


0.28 


6.2 


0.33 


7.2 


0.39 


8.3 


0.44 



0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.5 
5.2 



Oats and peas, 
1 : 4.2 



0.5 


0.07 


1.1 


0.14 


2.1 


0.27 


3.2 


0.41 


4.3 


0.54 


5.3 


0.68 


6.4 


0.81 


7.5 


0.95 


8.5 


1.08 



0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 






Timothy grass 
1 : 14.3 



1.0 

1.9 

3.8 

5.8 

7.7 

9.6 

11.5 

13.4 

15.4 



0.04 
0.08 
0.15 
0.23 
0.30 
0.38 
0.45 
0.53 
0.60 



0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.3 
5.4 
6.4 
7.5 
8.6 



Green oat 
fodder, 1 : 8.7 



0.9 


0.06 


1.9 


0.12 


3.8 


0.24 


5.7 


0.36 


7.6 


0.48 


9.5 


0.60 


11.3 


0.72 


13.2 


0.84 


15.1 


0.96 



0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.2 
5.2 
6.2 
7.3 
8.3 



Barley and peas, 
1 : 3.2 



0.5 


0.07 


1.0 


0.14 


2.1 


0.28 


3.1 


0.42 


4.1 


0.56 


5.2 


0.70 


6.2 


0.84 


7.2 


0.98 


8.2 


1.12 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.6 



ga-2 



Ky. blue grass, 
1 : 9.2 



0.9 

1.8 

3.5 

5.2 

7.0 

8.7 

10.5 

12.2 

14.0 



0.05 
0.10 
0.20 
0.30 
0.40 
0.50 
0.60 
0.70 
0.80 



0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 
4.7 
5.5 
6.4 
7.3 



Green rye 
fodder, 1 : 7.2 



0.6 


0.05 


1.2 


0.11 


2.3 


0.21 


3.5 


0.32 


4.7 


0.42 


5.9 


0.52 


7.0 


0.63 


8.2 


0.74 


9.4 


0.84 



0.4 
0.7 
1.5 
2.3 
3.0 
3.8 
4.5 
5.3 
6.0 



Red clover 
(green), 1 : 5.7 



0.7 


0.07 


1.5 


0.15 


2.9 


0.29 


4.4 


0.44 


5.9 


0.58 


7.3 


0.73 


8.8 


0.87 


10.2 


1.02 


11.7 


1.16 



0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
4.9 
5.7 
6.6 



APPENDIX 



345 



Composition of Feeds — Continued 



Pounds of 
feed 



Green fodders 



2y 2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



Roots 



Milk 






Corn silage, 
1 : 11.9 



2V 2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



2V 2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



2V 2 

5 
10 
15 
20 
25 
30 
35 
40 



0.7 


0.03 


1.3 


0.06 


2.6 


0.14 


4.0 


0.20 


5.3 


0.26 


6.6 


0.33 


7.9 


0.39 


9.2 


0.46 


10.6 


0.52 



0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.3 
3.1 
3.9 
4.7 
5.5 
6.2 



Potatoes, 1 : 17.3 



0.5 


0.02 


1.1 


0.05 


2.1 


0.09 


3.2 


0.14 


4.2 


0.18 


5.3 


0.23 


6.3 


0.27 


7.4 


0.32 


8.4 


0.36 



0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.3 
3.1 
3.9 
4.7 
5.4 
6.2 



Mangels, 1 : 4.9 



0.2 


0.03 


0.4 


0.06 


0.9 


0.11 


1.4 


0.17 


1.8 


0.22 


2.3 


0.28 


2.7 


0.33 


3.2 


0.39 


3.6 


0.44 



0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
1.1 
1.4 
1.6 
1.9 
2.2 



Skim milk, 1 : 2.0 



0.2 


0.07 


0.5 


0.15 


0.9 


0.29 


1.4 


0.44 


1.9 


0.58 


2.4 


0.73 


2.8 


0.87 


3.2 


1.02 


3.7 


1.16 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.6 
1.8 
2.1 
2.4 



Corn stover 
silage, 1 : 15.0 



0.7 


0.03 


1.3 


0.06 


2.6 


0.11 


3.9 


0.17 


5.3 


0.22 


6.6 


0.28 


7.9 


0.33 


9.2 


0.39 


10.5 


0.44 



0.4 
0.8 
1.7 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
5.0 
5.8 
6.6 



Sugar beets, 1 : 6.8 



0.3 


0.04 


0.7 


0.08 


1.4 


0.16 


2.0 


0.24 


2.7 


0.32 


3.4 


0.40 


4.1 


0.48 


4.7 


0.56 


5.4 


0.64 



0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.7 

2.2 
2.7 
3.3 
3.8 
4.4 



Rutabagas, 1 : 8.6 



0.3 


0.03 


0.5 


0.05 


1.1 


0.10 


1.6 


0.15 


2.3 


0.20 


2.9 


0.25 


3.4 


0.30 


4.0 


0.35 


4.6 


0.40 



0.2 
0.-± 
0.9 
1.3 
1.7 
2.2 
2.6 
3.0 
3.4 



Buttermilk, 1 : 1.7 



0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 



0.10 


0.2 


0.19 


0.3 


0.38 


0.6 


0.57 


1.0 


0.76 


1.3 


0.95 


1.6 


1.14 


1.9 


1.33 


2.2 


1.52 


2.6 









Clover silage, 
1 : 4.7 



0.7 


0.07 


1.4 


0.14 


2.8 


0.27 


4.2 


0.41 


5.6 


0.54 


7.0 


0.68 


8.4 


0.81 


9.8 


0.95 


11.2 


1.08 



0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.5 
5.1 



Carrots, 1 : 9.6 



0.3 


0.03 


0.5 


0.05 


1.1 


0.10 


1.6 


0.15 


2.3 


0.20 


2.9 


0.25 


3.4 


0.30 


4.0 


0.35 


4.6 


0.40 



0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.9 
3.4 
3.8 



Turnips, 1 : 7.7 



0.2 


0.03 


0.5 


0.05 


1.0 


0.10 


1.4 


0.15 


1.9 


0.20 


2.4 


0.25 


2.9 


0.30 


3.3 


0.35 


3.8 


0.40 



0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.5 
1.9 
2.3 
2.7 
3.1 



Whey, 1 : 8.7 



0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.5 
1.9 
2.2 
2.5 



0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 



0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
1.0 
1.3 
1.6 
1.8 
2.1 



346 



APPENDIX 



Composition of Feeds — Continuad 



Pounds of 
feed 



Hays 



2V 2 

5 

7V 2 
10 

123^ 
15 

17V 2 
20 
25 



2y 2 

5 

7V 2 
10 

12^ 
15 

vy 2 

20 
25 



2V 2 

5 

7V 2 
10 

12M 
15 

173^ 
20 
25 



Dry 

fodders 



2V 2 
5 

7V 2 
10 

12^ 

15 

\7Y 2 

20 

25 



Mixed hay, 
1 : 10.0 



2.1 


0.11 


4.2 


0.22 


6.4 


0.33 


8.5 


0.44 


10.6 


0.55 


12.7 


0.66 


14.8 


0.77 


16.9 


0.88 


21.2 


1.10 



1.1 

2.2 
3.3 
4.4 
5.5 
6.6 
7.7 
8.8 
11.0 



Oat hay, 1 : 9.9 



2.3 


0.10 


4.6 


0.21 


6.8 


0.31 


9.1 


0.41 


11.4 


0.51 


13.7 


0.62 


16.0 


0.72 


18.2 


0.82 


2.28 


1.03 



1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.1 
6.1 
7.1 
8.1 
10.2 



Red clover hay, 
1 : 5.9 



2.1 


0.18 


4.2 


0.36 


6.4 


0.53 


8.5 


0.71 


10.6 


0.89 


12.7 


1.07 


14.8 


1.24 


16.9 


1.42 


21.2 


1.78 



1.0 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 
5.2 
6.3 
7.3 
8.3 
10.5 



Corn fodder, 
1 : 14.3 



1.4 


0.06 


2.9 


0.13 


4.3 


0.19 


5.8 


0.25 


7.2 


0.32 


8.7 


0.38 


10.1 


0.44 


11.6 


0.50 


14.5 


0.63 



0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
5.4 
6.2 
7.1 
8.9 



I S3 



Timothy hay, 
1 : 16.5 



2.2 


0.07 


4.3 


0.14 


6.5 


0.21 


8.7 


0.28 


10.9 


0.35 


13.0 


0.42 


15.2 


0.49 


17.4 


0.56 


21.7 


0.70 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 

5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 



Oat and pea hay, 
1 : 4.1 



2.2 


0.28 


4.4 


0.56 


6.6 


0.84 


8.9 


1.12 


11.1 


1.40 


13.3 


1.68 


15.5 


1.96 


17.7 


2.24 


22.1 


2.80 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 



Alsike clover hay, 
1 : 5.5 



2.3 

4.5 

6.8 

9.0 

11.3 

13.5 

15.8 

18.1 

22.6 



0.21 
0.42 
0.63 
0.84 
1.05 
1.26 
1.47 
1.68 
2.10 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 



Corn stover, 
1 : 23.6 



1.5 

3.0 

4.5 

6.0 

7.5 

9.0 

10.5 

12.0 

15.0 



0.04 
0.07 
0.11 
0.14 
0.18 
0.21 
0.25 
0.28 
0.35 



0.8 
1.7 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
5.0 
5.8 
6.6 
8.3 



T3 0) 

if 



S'S'S 



Ky. blue grass 
hay, 1 : 10.6 



1.9 


0.09 


3.7 


0.19 


5.6 


0.28 


7.4 


0.37 


9.2 


0.46 


11.1 


0.56 


13.0 


0.65 


14.8 


0.74 


18.5 


0.93 



1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
3.9 
4.9 
5.9 
6.9 
7.9 
9.9 



Hungarian, 1 : 10.0 



2.1 

4.2 
6.3 
8.4 
10.4 
12.5 
14.6 
16.7 
20.9 



0.12 
0.25 
0.37 
0.49 
062 
0.74 
0.86 
0.98 
1.23 



1.2 

2.4 
3.0 
4.9 
6.2 
7.4 
8.6 
9.8 
12.3 



Oat straw, 
1 : 38.3 



2.3 

4.6 

6.8 

9.1 

11.4 

13.9 

16.0 

18.2 

22.7 



0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 
0.30 



1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.5 



Wheat straw, 
1 : 93.0 



2.3 

4.5 
6.8 
9.0 
11.3 
13.5 
15.8 
18.1 
22.6 



0.01 
0.02 
0.03 
0.04 
0.05 
0.06 
0.07 
0.08 
0.10 



0.9 
1.9 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
5.6 
6.5 
7.4 
9.3 



APPENDIX 



347 



Composition of Feeds — Continued 



Pounds of 
feed 



Grains 



X 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

7V 2 
10 



X 

y 2 
i 

2 
3 

4 
5 

7V 2 
10 



By- 

products 



X 

y 2 
i 

2 
3 
4 
5 

7M 
10 



X 

y 2 
i 

2 
3 
4 
5 

7H 
10 






Corn meal, 1 : 9.9 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.08 


1.8 


0.16 


2.7 


0.23 


3.6 


0.31 


4.5 


0.39 


6.7 


0.59 


8.9 


0.78 



0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.5 
2.3 
3.1 
3.8 
5.7 
7.7 



Barley, 1 : 8.0 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.17 


2.7 


0.26 


3.6 


0.35 


4.5 


0.44 


6.7 


0.65 


8.9 


0.87 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 



Wheat middlings, 
1 : 4.6 



0.2 


0.03 


0.1 


0.4 


0.06 


0.3 


0.9 


0.13 


0.6 


1.8 


0.25 


1.2 


2.6 


0.38 


1.7 


3.5 


0.50 


2.3 


4.4 


0.63 


2.9 


6.6 


0.94 


4.4 


8.8 


1.25 


5.8 



Rye, 1:78 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.18 


2.7 


0.27 


3.5 


0.36 


4.4 


0.46 


6.6 


0.67 


8.8 


0.89 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 



j3 (U < — 



Corn and cob 
meal, 1 : 13.9 



0.2 


0.01 


0.4 


0.02 


0.9 


0.05 


1.7 


0.10 


2.6 


0.14 


3.4 


0.19 


4.3 


0.24 


6.4 


0.36 


8.5 


0.48 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 
3.4 
5.1 
6.7 



Barley screenings, 
1 : 7.7 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.17 


2.6 


0.26 


3.5 


0.34 


4.4 


0.43 


6.6 


0.65 


8.8 


0.86 



0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 
3.3 
5.0 
6.6 



Wheat screenings, 
1 : 5.2 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 



0.02 
0.05 
0.10 
0.20 
0.29 
0.39 
0.49 
0.74 
0.98 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.8 
5.1 



Rye bran, 1 : 5.1 



0.2 

0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 



0.03 
0.06 
0.12 
0.25 
0.37 
0.49 
0.62 
0.92 
1.23 



0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.5 
3.1 
4.7 
6.3 






Oats, 1 : 6 2 



0.2 


0.02 


0.4 


0.05 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.18 


2.7 


0.28 


3.6 


0.37 


4.5 


0.46 


6.7 


0.69 


8.9 


0.92 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.7 



Wheat bran, 1 : 3.8 



0.2 


0.03 


0.4 


0.06 


0.9 


0.12 


1.8 


0.24 


2.6 


0.36 


3.5 


0.48 


4.4 


0.60 


6.6 


0.90 


8.8 


1.20 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 



Red-dog flour, 
1 : 3.3 



0.2 


0.04 


0.5 


0.09 


0.9 


0.18 


1.8 


0.36 


2.7 


0.53 


3.6 


0.71 


4.6 


0.89 


6.8 


1.34 


9.1 


1.78 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 



Cotton-seed meal, 
1 : 1.0 



0.2 
0.5 
0.9 

1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 



0.10 
0.20 
0.40 
0.80 
1.20 
1.60 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 



348 



APPENDIX 



Composition of Feeds — Continued 



Pounds of 
feed. 



By- 

products 



o " 
H 






Cotton-seed hulls 



H 
H 
1 

2 
3 

4 
5 

7V 2 
10 



H 
H 

l 

2 
3 

4 
5 

7V 2 
10 



1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

7V 2 
10 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

10 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.1 
1.5 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 



Flaxseed meal, 1 : 1.4 



0.2 


0.08 


0.4 


0.16 


0.9 


0.32 


1.8 


0.64 


2.7 


0.96 


3.6 


1.28 


4.5 


1.60 


6.7 


2.40 


8.9 


3.21 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.3 
1.7 
2.2 
3.3 
4.3 



Gluten feed, 
Buffalo, I : 2.4 



0.2 


0.06 


0.4 


0.12 


0.9 


0.23 


1.8 


0.47 


2.7 


0.70 


3.6 


0.93 


4.5 


1.17 


6.8 


1.75 


9.0 


2.33 



0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.7 



Atlas gluten 
meal, 1 : 2.6 



0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 



0.06 
0.12 
0.25 
0.49 
0.74 
0.98 
1.23 
1.85 
2.46 



0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
4.9 
6.5 



o H 
H 






Linseed meal, o.-p , 
1 : 1.5 



0.2 


0.08 


0.5 


0.15 


0.9 


0.31 


1.8 


0.62 


2.7 


0.92 


3.6 


1.23 


4.9 


1.54 


6.8 


2.31 


9.0 


3.08 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 



Gluten meal (Chicago) 
1 : 1.5 



0.2 


0.08 


0.4 


0.16 


0.9 


0.32 


1.8 


0.64 


2.6 


0.96 


3.5 


1.28 


4.4 


1.60 


6.6 


2.40 


8.8 


3.21 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
2.3 
3.5 
4.7 



Hominy chop, 
1 : 9.2 



0.2 


0.02 


0.5 


0.04 


0.9 


0.09 


1.8 


0.17 


2.8 


0.26 


3.7 


0.35 


4.6 


0.44 


6.9 


0.65 


9.2 


0.87 



0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.4 
3.2 
4.0 
6.0 
8.0 



Malt sprouts, 
1 : 2.2 



0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 



0.05 
0.09 
0.19 
0.37 
0.56 
0.74 
0.93 
1.40 
1.86 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 



o s 
H 






Linseed meal, n.-p. 
1 : 1.3 



0.2 


0.08 


0.4 


0.16 


0.9 


0.32 


1.8 


0.65 


2.7 


0.97 


3.6 


1.30 


4.5 


1.62 


6.7 


2.43 


8.9 


3.24 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.3 
1.7 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 



Gluten meal, 
cream, 1 : 1.7 



0.2 


0.07 


0.4 


0.15 


0.9 


0.30 


1.8 


0.59 


2.7 


0.89 


3.6 


1.19 


4.5 


1.49 


6.7 


2.23 


9.0 


2.97 



0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 
3.9 
5.1 



Dried brewers' 
grains, 1 : 3.0 



0.2 


0.04 


0.5 


0.08 


0.9 


0.16 


1.8 


0.31 


2.8 


0.47 


3.7 


0.63 


4.6 


0.79 


6.9 


1.18 


9.2 


1.57 



0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
3.5 
4.7 



Pea meal, 1 : 3.2 



0.2 


0.04 


0.4 


0.08 


0.9 


0.17 


1.8 


0.33 


2.7 


0.50 


3.6 


0.67 


4.5 


0.84 


6.7 


1.26 


9.0 


1.68 



0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.6 
2.1 
2.7 
4.0 
5.3 



APPENDIX 



349 



Table III. — Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy Values in Common 
Feeding Stuffs, -per 100 Pounds. 

(Armsby.) 



Feeding stuff 



Green fodder and silage: 

Alfalfa.... 

Clover, crimson 

Clover, red 

Corn fodder, green 

Corn silage 

Hungarian grass 

Rape 

Rye 

Timothy 

Hay and dry coarse fodders: 

Alfalfa hay 

Clover hay, red 

Corn forage, field-cured. . 

Corn stover 

Cowpea hay 

Hungarian hay 

Oat hay 

Soybean hay 

Timothy hay 

Straws: 

Oat straw 

Rye straw 

Wheat straw 

Roots and tubers: 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Potatoes 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Grains: 

Barley 

Corn 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Oats 

Pea meal 

Rye 

Wheat 

By-products: 

Brewers' grains, dried. . . . 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Buckwheat middlings 

Cotton-seed meal 

Distillers' grains, dried 

Principally corn 

Principally rye 

Gluten feed, dry 

Gluten meal, Buffalo 

Gluten meal, Chicago 

Linseed meal, old-process. 

Linseed meal, new-process 

Malt sprouts 

Rye bran 

Sugar-beet pulp, fresh. . . . 
Sugar-beet pulp, dried. . . . 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings, flour. . . 



Total dry 


Digestible 


Energy 


matter, 


true protein, 


value, 


pounds 


pounds 


therms 


28.2 


2.50 


12.45 


19.1 


2.19 


11.30 


29.2 


2.21 


16.17 


20.7 


.41 


12.44 


25.6 


1.21 


16.56 


28.9 


1.33 


14.76 


14.3 


2.16 


11.43 


23.4 


1.44 


11.63 


38.4 


1.04 


19.08 


91.6 


6.93 


34.41 


84.7 


5.41 


34.74 


57.8 


2.13 


30.53 


59.5 


1.80 


26.53 


89.3 


8.57 


40.76 


92.3 


3.00 


44.03 


84.0 


2.59 


26.97 


88.7 


7.68 


38.65 


86.8 


2.05 


33.56 


90.8 


1.09 


21.21 


92.9 


.63 


20.87 


90.4 


.37 


16.56 


11.4 


.37 


7.82 


9.1 


.14 


4.62 


21.1 


.45 


18.05 


11.4 


.38 


8.00 


9.4 


.22 


5.74 


89.1 


8.37 


80.75 


89.1 


6.79 


88.84 


84.9 


4.53 


72.05 


89.0 


8.36 


66.27 


89.5 


16.77 


71.75 


88.4 


8.12 


81.72 


89.5 


8.90 


82.63 


92.0 


19.04 


60.01 


24.3 


3.81 


14.82 


88.2 


22.34 


75.92 


91.8 


35.15 


S4.20 


93.0 


21.93 


79.23 


93.2 


10.38 


60.93 


91.9 


19.95 


79.32 


91.8 


21.56 


88.80 


90.5 


33.09 


78.49 


90.8 


27.54 


78.92 . 


90.1 


29.26 


74.67 


89.8 


12.36 


46.33 


88.2 


11.35 


56.65 


10.1 


.63 


7.77 


93.6 


6.80, 


60.10 


88.1 


10.21 


48.23 


84.0 


12.79 


77.65 



350 



APPENDIX 



Table IV. — The Feed-unit System 

AMOUNTS OF DIFFERENT FEEDS REQUIRED TO EQUAL ONE FEED UNIT 



Feeding stuff 



Feed required to equal 1 unit 



Average, 
pounds 



Range, 
pounds 



Concentrates: 

Corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried 
brewers' grains, wheat middlings, oat 
shorts, peas, Unicorn Dairy Ration, 
molasses beet pulp 

Cotton-seed meal 

Linseed meal, Ajax Flakes (dried distillers' 
grains), gluten feed, soybeans 

Wheat bran, oats, dried beet pulp, barley 
feed, malt sprouts, International Sugar 
feed, Badger Dairy feed, Schumacher 
stock feed, molasses grains 

Alfalfa meal, Victor feed, June pasture, 
alfalfa molasses feeds 

Hay and Straw: 

Alfalfa hay, clover hay 

Mixed hay, oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley 

and pea hay, red-top hay 

Timothy hay, prairie hay, sorghum hay. . . 
Corn stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay, 

cut straw 

Soiling Crops, Silage and Other Succulent Feeds: 

Green alfalfa 

Green corn, sorghum, clover, peas and oats, 

cannery refuse 

Alfalfa silage 

Corn silage, pea- vine silage 

Wet brewers' grains 

Potatoes, skim milk, buttermilk 

Sugar beets 

Carrots 

Rutabagas 

Field beets, green rape 

Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey 

Turnips, mangels, fresh beet pulp 



1.0 

0.8 

0.9 



1.1 
1.2 

2.0 



1.5- 3.0 



2.5 


2.0- 3.0 


3.0 


2.5- 4.0 


4.0 


3.5- 6.0 


7.0 


6.0- 8.0 


8.0 


7.0-10.0 


5.0 




6.0 


5.0- 7.0 


4.0 




6.0 




7.0 




8.0 




9.0 


8.0-10.0 


10.0 




12.0 




12.5 


10.0-15.0 



The value of pasture is generally placed at 8 to 12 units per day, on the 
average, varying with kind and condition. 



APPENDIX 



351 



Table V. — Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products 
(U. S. Department of Agriculture) 



Material 



Green Fodders: 

Alfalfa (lucern) 

Alsike clover 

Corn silage 

Cowpea 

Green fodder corn 

Oat fodder 

Pasture grass 

Prickly comfrey 

Red clover 

Rye fodder 

Scarlet clover 

Soybean 

Sorghum fodder 

Timothy grass 

White clover 

Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders: 

Alfalfa 

Alsike clover 

Barley chaff 

Barley straw 

Buckwheat hulls 

Common millet 

Corn stover (without ears) 
Fodder corn (with ears) . . 

Hay of mixed grasses 

Hungarian grass 

Mammoth red clover 

Oat straw 

Red clover 

Red-top 

Rye straw 

Scarlet clover 

Timothy 

Wheat chaff 

Wheat straw 

White clover 

Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, etc.: 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Potatoes 

Red beets 

Rutabagas 

Sugar beets 

Sweet potatoes 

Turnips 

Yellow fodder beets 



Water, 


Ash, 


Nitrogen, 


per cent 


per cent 


per cent 


75.3 


2.25 


.72 


81.8 


1.47 


.44 


78.0 




.28 


78.8 


1.47 


.27 


78.6 


4.84 


.41 


83.4 


1.31 


.49 


63.1 


3.27 


.91 


84.4 


2.45 


.42 


80.0 




.53 


62.1 




.33 


82.5 




.43 


73.2 




.29 


82.2 




.23 


66.9 


2.15 


.48 


81.0 




.50 


6.55 


7.07 


2.19 


9.94 


11.11 


2.34 


13.08 




1.01 


11.44 


5.30 


1.31 


11.90 




.49 


9.75 




1.28 


9.12 


3.74 


1.04 


7.85 


4.91 


1.76 


11.99 


6.34 


1.41 


7.69 


6.18 


1.20 


11.41 


8.72 


2.23 


9.09 


4.76 


.62 


11.33 


6.93 


2.07 . 


7.71 


4.59 


1.15 


7.61 


3.25 


.46 


18.30 


7.70 


2.05 


7.52 


4.93 


1.26 


8.05 


7.18 


.79 


12.56 


3.81 


.59 
2.75 


89.79 


1.22 


.15 


87.29 


1.22 


.19 


79.24 


.89 


.32 


87.73 


1.13 


.24 


89.13 


.1.06 


.19 


86.95 


1.04 


.22 


71.26 


1.00 


.24 


89.49 


1.01 


.18 


90.60 


.95 


.19 



Phos- 
phoric 
acid, 

per cent 



.13 
.11 
.11 
.10 
.15 
.13 
.23 
.11 
.13 
.15 
.13 
.15 
.09 
.26 
.20 



.51 
.67 
.27 
.30 
.07 
.49 
.29 
.54 
.27 
.35 
.55 
.20 
.38 
.36 
.28 
.40 
.53 
.70 
.12 
.52 



.09 
.09 
.12 
.09 
.12 
.10 
.08 
.10 
.09 



Potash, 
per cent 



.56 
.20 
.37 
.31 
.33 
.38 
.75 
.75 
.46 
.73 
.49 
.53 
.23 
.76 
.24 



1.68 
2.23 

.99 
2.09 

.52 
1.69 
1.40 

.89 
1.55 
1.30 
1.22 
1.24 
2.20 
1.02 

.79 
1.31 

.90 

.42 

.51 
1.81 



.51 
.38 
.46 
.44 
.49 
.48 
.37 
.39 
.46 



352 



APPENDIX 



Table V. — Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products — Continued. 



Material 



Grains and Other Seeds: 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Corn 

Japanese millet 

Millet, common 

Oats 

Rice 

Rye 

Soybeans 

Sorghum seed 

Wheat, spring 

Wheat, winter 

Other Concentrated Feeds: 

Apple pomace 

Apples, fruit 

Brewers' grains, dry 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Buckwheat middlings 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Corn cobs 

Corn meal 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Cotton-seed meal 

Gluten meal 

Ground barley 

Ground oats 

Hominy feed 

Linseed meal (new-process) 

Linseed meal (old-process) . 

Malt sprouts 

Pea meal 

Rice bran 

Rice polish 

Rye bran 

Rye middlings 

Starch feed (glucose refuse) 

Wheat bran 

Wheat flour 

Wheat middlings 

Dairy Products, etc.: 

Butter 

Buttermilk 

Cheese 

Cream 

Skim milk 

Whey... 

Whole milk 

Animals: 

Live cattle 

Sheep 

Swine 



Water, 
per cent 



14.30 
14.10 
10.88 
13.68 
12.68 
18.17 
12.60 
14.90 
18.33 
14.00 
14.35 
14.75 

80.50 

85.30 

9.14 

75.01 

14.70 

8.96 

12.09 

12.95 

10.17 

7.81 

8.59 

13.43 

11.17 

8.93 

7.77 

8.88 

18.38 

8.85 

10.20 

10.30 

12.50 

12.54 

8.10 

11.74 

9.83 

9.18 

79.10 
90.50 
33.25 
74.05 
90.25 
92.97 
87.00 

50.2 
44.8 
42.0 



Ash, 
per cent 



2.48 
L53 

2.98 

.82 

<L99 
L57 



.27 

.39 

3.92 

L40 

"!82 
1.41 
2.40 
6.95 
.73 
2.06 
3.37 
2.21 
5.37 
6.08 

12.48 
2.68 

12.94 
9.00 
4.60 
3.52 



6.25 
1.22 
2.30 

.15 
.70 
2.10 
.50 
.80 
.60 
.75 

4.40 
2.90 
1.80 



Nitrogen, 
per cent 



1.51 
1.44 
1.82 
1.73 
2.04 
2.06 
1.08 
1.76 
5.30 
1.48 
2.36 
2.36 

.23 
.13 

3.62 

.89 
1.38 
1.41 

.50 
1.58 

.69 
6.79 
5.03 
1.55 
1.86 
1.63 
5.78 
5.43 
3.55 
3.08 

.71 
1.97 
2.32 
1.84 
2.62 
2.67 
2.21 
2.63 

.12 
.48 
3.93 
.40 
.56 
.15 
.53 

2.48 
1.95 
1.76 



Phos- ] 

phoric Potash, 
acid, I per cent 
per cent 



.79 
.44 
.70 
.69 
.85 
.82 
.18 
.82 
1.87 
.81 
.70 
.89 

.02 

.01 

1.03 

.31 

.68 

.57 

.06 

.63 

.25 

2.88 

.33 

.66 

. .77 

.98 

1.83 

1.66 

1.43 

.82 

.29 

2.67 

2.28 

1.26 

.29 

2.89 

.57 

.95 

.04 
.17 
.60 
.15 
.20 
.14 
.19 

1.76 

1.13 

.73 



APPENDIX 353 

Table VI. — Average Weights of Concentrated Feeding Stuffs 



Feeding stuff 



Barley meal 

Barley, whole 

Beet pulp, dried 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Corn-and-cob meal 

Corn and oat feed 

Corn bran 

Corn meal 

Corn, whole 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton seed 

Distillers' grains, dried 

Germ-oil meal 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Hominy meal 

Kafir meal 

Linseed meal (new-process) 

Linseed meal (old-process) 

Malt sprouts 

Mixed mill feed (bran and middlings) 

Molasses beet pulp 

Oat feed 

Oat middlings 

Oats, whole 

Rye bran 

Rye feed (rye bran and rye middlings) 

Rye meal 

Rye, whole 

Wheat bran 

Wheat feed, mixed 

Wheat, ground 

Wheat middlings (flour) 

Wheat middlings (standard) 

Wheat, whole 



One quart 


One pound 


weighs, 


measures, 


pounds 


quarts 


1.1 


.9 


1.5 


.7 


.55 


1.8 


.6 


1.7 


1.4 


.7 


.7 


1.4 


.5 


2.0 


1.5 


.7 


1.7 


.6 


1.5 


.7 


1.0 


1.0 


.5-.7 


2.0-1.4 


1.4 


.7 


1.3 


.8 


1.7 


.6 


1.1 


.9 


1.6 


.6 


.9 


1.1 


1.1 


.9 


.6 


1.7 


.6 


1.7 


.75 


1.3 


.8 


1.3 


1.5 


.7 


1.0 


1.0 


.6 


1.7 


1.3 


.8 


1.5 


.7 


1.7 


.6 


.5 


2.0 


.6 


1.7 


1.7 


.6 


1.2 


.8 


.8 


1.3 


1.9 


.5 



INDEX 



Absorption of feed, 31 

Acids, free, influence on digestibility, 

69 
Acorns, 211 
Adulterated butter, 23 
Age, influence on digestibility of 

feeding stuffs, 65 
Agricultural sections of United 
States, cbaracteristic grasses and 
hay crops, 90 
Albumen, 22 
Albuminoids, 11 
Albumins, 9 
Alfalfa, 114 

changes in composition, 117 

composition, 115 

in different stages of 
growth, 56 

digestion coefficients, 57 

hay for horses, 284 

losses in hay making, 59 

silage, 158 

yields of dry matter and diges- 
tible matter, 57 
American Fat Stock Show, results 
obtained with fattening steers, 259 
Amides, 10 
Amino-acids, 10 
Amylopsin, 29 
Amy loses, 14 

Animal body, components, 21 
Animals, live, composition, 19 
Annual forage crops, 105 
Apples, 143 
Araban, 14 

Armsby standards, 38 
Armsby's energy values, 74 
Artichokes, composition of, 142 

Jerusalem. 142 
Artificial butter, 23 

digestion, 41 
Ash, 7 

materials in animal body, 24 
Available energy, 48 
Avenalin, 9 

Baby beef, 269 

Bacon production, feeding for, 314 

Barley, 169 

feeds. 183 
Bean straw, 130 
Beans, 175 



Beech nuts, 211 
Beef calf, the, 225 

cattle, cost of feeding, 262 
feeding of, 253 
length of feeding period. 263 
literature on feeding, 276 
rate of increase of, 25S 
rations for, 253 
returns for feed eaten. 264 
systems for feeding, 253 
young and old, average 
daily gains, 258 
cows, influence of liberal feed- 
ing, 236 
production in eastern States, 
274 
in southern States, 274 
scraps, 204 
Beet molasses, 192 
pulp, 193 

dried, 194 
silage, 161, 194 
Bermuda grass, 102 
Bile, 29 

Black-strap molasses, 193 
Blood, 21 

corpuscles, 21 
meal, 204 
Blue grass, Kentucky, 101 
Boar, feeding of, 305 
Body fat, 23 
Bone meal, 205 
Breed, influence on digestibility of 

feeding stuffs, 65 
Brewers' grains, 188 
Brewery feeds, 188 
Brush feed, 211 
Buckwheat, 172 
bran, 183 
feeds, 183 
hulls, 183 
middlings, 183 
Buttermilk. 20S 
Butyric acid, 23 

Cabbage, 138 
Cacti, spineless, 146 
Calf feeding, 215 

literature on, 226 

standards, 215 
meals, composition of, 222 

355 



356 



INDEX 



Calorie, 45 
Calorimeter, 45 
Calorimetry, 44 

Calves, birth weights and gains by, 
215 

feeding stuffs for, 21G 

gains made by, 216 

grain feeds for, 221 

literature on feeding, 22G 

oil with skim milk for, 220 

roughage for, 221 

rules for feeding, 220 

salt for, 222 

skim milk for, 210 

substitutes for skim milk, 222 

succulent feeds for, 222 

supplemental feeds with skim 
milk, 220 

water for, 222 

whole milk for, 217 
Canada field peas, 121 
Cane molasses, 193 
Capillaries, 31 
Carbohydrates, 13 

chemical energy in, 45 

influence on digestibility, 69 
Carrots, 136 
Casein, 22 
Cassava, sweet, 143 
Cattle feeding, literature on, 276 

markets, 261 

shrinkage of, 261 
Cattle-raising, margin, 261 

spread, 261 
Cellulose, 14, 15 
Cereal grains, 163 

hay, 109 

straw, 128 

composition of, 128 
Chemical elements, 5 

energy, 45 
Cholesterin, 23 
Chufa, 142 
Citron melons, 141 
Climatic environment, influence on 
chemical composition of feeding 
stuffs, 53 
Clover, alsike, 119 

crimson, 119 

Japan, 120 

mammoth, 119 

red, 117 

silage, 159 

Swedish, 119 

sweet, 121 

white, 119 
Coconut meal, 202 
Coefficients of digestibility, 41, 42 



Composition of plants, 6 
Concentrates, 163 
for calves, 221 
dairy cows, 246 
lambs, 327, 331 
steers, 266, 287 
Condimental stock feeds, 212 
Conglutin, 9 
Connective tissues, 22 
Cooking feed, influence on digesti- 
bility, 67 
Corn and oats, 168 
feeds, 184 
hogging down, 305 
kernel, composition, 184 
oil cake, 191 
proteins, 166 

silage, average composition, 61 
stalks, 129 
Cotton seed, 176 

belt, grasses of, 90 
seed cake, cold-pressed. 199 
decorticated, 199 
hulls, 201 
meal, 198 

for pigs, 200 
iron sulfate method for 
prevention of toxic 
effects, 201 
tests for impurities, 200 
uses of, 200 
Cow melons, 141 

Cowpea plant, composition of differ- 
ent parts, 124 
silage, 160 
Cowpeas, 124, 175 
Cows, high-producing, value of, 234 

on pasture, feeding grain to, 94 
Creatin, 22 
Cutin, 15 

Cutting feeds, influence on digesti- 
bility, 67 

Dairy barn, routine of day's work in, 
250 
bull, feeding of, 251 
calf, the, 224 
cattle, feeding of, 227 

literature on feeding, 252 
cows, amount of feed eaten an- 
nually, 238 
concentrates for, 246 
dry roughage for, 245 
feeding standards, 227 

table for, 241 
influence of liberal feeding, 

236 
rations for, 247 



INDEX 



357 



Dairy cows, succulent feeds for, 244 
siunmer feeding of, 243 
the American practical feed- 
ing ration for, 240 
winter feeding of, 244 
feeds, 205, 210 
heifer, feeding of, 242 
herds, improvement of, 237 
products for calves, 217 
for swine, 302 
Damaged wheat, 170 
Desert plants, 145 
Dextrine, 14 
Dextrose, 14 
Diastatic ferments, 13 
Dietrich's standard for pigs, 307 
Digester tankage, 204 
Digestibility of feeding stuffs, 40 

conditions affecting, 63 
Digestion coefficients, 41, 42 

of feed, 28 
Digestive apparatus of non-rumi- 
nants, 27 
ruminants, 20 
Di-saccharides, 14 
Distillers' grains, 189 
Distillery feeds, 188 
Dried blood, 204 
Dry substance, 7 
Drying of feeding stuffs, influence on 

digestibility, 06 
Durra, 110, 173 

Eckles' standards for dairy cows, 240 
Edestin, 9 
Egyptian corn, 173 
Elements, chemical, 5 

essential, 5 
Emmer, 172 
Energy, available, 48 

values, Armsby's, 74 
Erepsin, 30 
Ewes, feeding of, 323 

milk, composition of, 323 
Extractives, 22 

Farm animals, composition, lfl 

literature on feeding, 220 
productive feeding of, 215 
horses, wintering, 288 
Fat, 11 

inlluence on digestibility, 69 
Fats, chemical energy in, 45 
Fattening cattle, protein require- 
ments of, 257 
composition of increase of live 

weight, 20, 256 
sheep, rations for, 332 



Feed, absorption of, 31 
components, ti 
digestion of, 26 

functions of, 36 
influence on quality of milk, 233 

quantity of milk, 234 
inspection, 182 

quantity of, influence on diges- 
tibility of feeding stud's, 65 
requirements for production, 36 
unit system, 79 

table of unit values, 350 
standard, 80 
uses of, by animals, 34, 36 
Feeding the boar, 305 
dairy cattle, 227 
ewes, 323 

farm animals, literature on, 226 
fattening sheep, 325 
Hour, dark, 181 
for fat and for lean, 300 
goats, 332 
lambs, 324 
mules, 291 
the ram, 323 
sheep, 317 

the sow and the pigs, 306 
swine, 294 
Feeding standards, 36 

for beef cattle, 253 
calves, 215 
comparisons of, 75 
dairy cows, 227, 239 
growing cattle, 215 
horses, 277 
limitations, 76 
sheep, 317 
swine, 294 
stuffs, chemical energy in, 45 
composition of, 5 

and digestibility, 337 
concentrated, average 

weights of, 353 
description of, !)0 
energy values, 349 
manurial values, 86, 351 
methods of comparison of 
values, 83 
chemical analysis, 16 
ready reference tables of 

composition, 344 
relative values, 82 
variations in chemical com- 
position, 53 
Fertility in feeds, 86 

retained by farm animals, 87 
Feterita, 173 
Fiber, 15 



358 



INDEX 



Field beets, 133 
Fish meal, 205 
Flaxseed, 176 

for calves, 220 
Floats, 205 

Florida beggar weed, 126 
Flour middlings, 181 

mill feeds, 179 
Foal, feeding of, 281 
Fodder corn, green, digestion coeffi- 
cients, 56 
Forage and grain crops, literature 
on, 177 
crops, annual, 105 
Formaldehyde treatment for calf 

scours, 220 
Foxtail, 111 
Fructose, 14 
Fruits, composition, 143 

fresh and dried, value in com- 
parison with hay, grains, etc., 
144 

Galactose, 14 
Gastric juice, 2S 
German oil meal, 191 
Gliadin, 10 
Globulins, 9 
Glucose, 14 

factory feeds, 190 
Glutelin, 10 
Gluten feed, 190 
Glutenin, 10 
Glycin, 9 
Glycogen, 14 
Goat feeding, literature on, 335 

feeding of, 332 
Grain feeds for calves, 221 
dairy cows, 246 
lambs, 327, 331 
steers, 266, 287 
hay, 109 

for horses, 2S6 
screenings, 170 
sorghums, 110 

silage from, 158 
Grease wood, 145 
Green forage and hay crops, 90 
Grinding feeds, influence on digesti- 
bility 67 
Ground feed, 168 
Growing cattle, standards for, 38 

sheep, standards for, 3S 
Growth and fattening, 256 
Gulf coast region, grasses of, 91 

Haecker's standards for dairy cows, 

240 



Harvesting, methods of, influence on 
chemical composition of feeding 
stuffs, 58 
Hay bales, standard sizes, 103 
weights, 103 
for calves, 221 
dairy heifer, 243 
horses, 284 
crops, 98 

changes in chemical com- 
position, 58 
composition, 99 
in the stack, measurement of, 

104 
yields of, 98 
Haemoglobin, 21 
Hexoses, 14 

High-producing cows, value of, 234 
High-protein feeds, 11 
Hogging-down corn, 305 
Hogs following steers, 272 
Hominy chop (feed, or meal), 185 
Hordein, 10 
Horse feeding, literature on, 293 

feeds, 210 
Horses, alfalfa hay for, 284 

allowance of roughage for, 283 
and ruminants, digestion of co- 
eflicients of hay and straw for, 
64 
character of feed required. 278 
concentrates for, 287 
corn for, 287 

digestibility of coarse feeds, 63 
energy requirements of, 280 
fattening for the market, 289 
feeding, 277 

standards, 277 
grain hay for, 286 
hay for, 284 
measurement of work done bv, 

279 
roots for, 286 
silage for, 286 
system of feeding. 282 
timothy hay for, 284 
watering, 283 
work done by, 277 
working, rations for, 290 
Hot-house lambs, feeding of, 320 
Hungarian grass, 111 

Icelandic moss, 211 ■ 

Increase of live weight in fattening, 

composition, 20 
Incrusting substances, 15 
Indian corn. 105 

chemical composition, 164 



INDEX 



359 



Indian corn, grain, 164 

field-curing, 108 

fodder, 129 

for horses, 287 

for swine, 303 

losses in curing, GO 

methods of harvesting, 108 

proportion of nutrients in, 
106 

thickness of planting, effect 
of, 105 

silage, 155 

variation in composition, 54 

yields secured, 106 
Intestinal juice, 29 
lnvertases, 30 

Japanese cane, 112 
Jerusalem artichokes, 142 

corn, 173 
Johnson grass, 102 

Kaoliang, 173 
Kafir corn, 110, 173 

silage, 158 
Kale, 140 

Kellner s starch values, 49 
Kentucky blue grass, 101 
Keratin, 22, 321 
Kjeldahl method, 16 
Kohlrabi, 135 

Lacteals, 31 

Lactose, 14 

Lambs, early spring, feeding of, 327 

fall, feeding of, 327 

fattening, value of grain feeds 
for, 330 

feeding of, 324 

hotJiouse, feeding of, 326 

weight at birth, 322 

winter feeding of, 327 
Leaves and twigs, 211 
Lecithin, 23 
Legume hay, average composition, 

113, 121 
Legumelin, 9 
Legumin, 9 
Leguminous crops, value of, 113 

seeds, chemical composition, 176 
Leucosin, 9 
Levulose, 14 
Lignin, 15 
Linamarin, 197 
Linoleic acid, 11 
Linolenic acid, 11 
Linseed meal, 195 

Literature on feeding of beef cattle, 
276 



Literature on feeding of calves, 226 

dairy cattle, 252 

farm animals, 226 

goats, 335 

horses, 293 

mules, 293 

sheep, 335 

swine, 316 
forage and grain crops, 177 
silos and silage, 162 
spineless cacti, 147 
Lipase, 29 
Lipoids, 23 

Live animals, composition, 19 
Low-protein feeds, 10 
Lymph, 22 

Maintenance rations, 35 
requirements, 34 

for different body weights, 
35 
Malt sprouts, 189 
Maltose, 14 
Mangels, 133 
Manurial value of feeding stuffs, 86, 

351 
Mare, feeding of, 281 
Market hay, 103 

grades, 103 
Marsh hay, 103 
Maysin, 9 
Meat meal, 204 
Metabolism, 33 
Milch goats, 333 
Milk, albumen, 22 
colostrum, 205 
composition, 206 

with variations, 228 
fat, 23 

production, factors influencing. 
229 
influence of age of cows, 230 
breed, 229 

condition of cows, 231 
excitement, 232 
feeding, 233 
frequency of milking, 

232 
grooming and exercise, 

233 
individuality, 230 
stage of lactation 

period, 231 
season of year, 233 
temperature and 
weather, 232 
requirements for, 39 
whole, for calves, 217 



360 



INDEX 



Milk-sugar, 14 
Millets, 111 
Milo maize, 110, 173 
Mineral matter, 7 

substances, influence on digesti- 
bility, 69 
Molasses, 192 

beet pulp, 195 
Mono-saceharides, 14 
Mules, feeding of, 291 
Muscular tissues, 22 
Myosin, 22 
Myosinogen, 22 

Net energy, 48 
Nitrogen-free extract, 13, 18 
Non-ruminants, 26 
Non-saccharine sorgbums, 110 
Nucleo-proteins, 10 
Nutritive ratio, 38, 73 

Oat dust, 182 

feeds, 182 

hulls, 182 

shorts, 182 

silage, 161 

straw, composition, 128 
Oats, 166 

and oat hulls, composition of, 
166 

digestibility, 167 

new, 167 
Oil, addition to skim milk, for 
calves, 220 

meals, 195 

composition, 197 
Old-process linseed meal, swelling 

test for, 196 
Olein, 11 

Orchard grass, 101 
Oxyhemoglobin, 21 

Pacific Coast, grasses of, 91 
Packing-house feeds, 204 
Palmitin, 11 
Pancreas, 29 
Pancreatic juice, 29 
Parsnips, 142 

composition of, 142 
Pasturage, value of, 94 
Pasture, feeding grain to cows on, 94 

for dairy cows, 243 
steers, 265 
swine, 304 

grasses, chemical composition. 93 
Pastures, 90 

care of, 91 



Peanut, 126 

meal, 203 

straw, 130 
Peas, 175 

Canada field, 121 
Pectin bodies, 15 
Pentosans, 14 
Pentoses, 14 
Peptones, 10 
Phosphate of lime, 24 
Phytin, 180 
Pie melons, 141 

Pigs, birth weight and gains made 
by, 295 

fed for fattening in winter and 
summer, 312 

feeding of, 306 

intended for breeding purposes, 
approximate ration for, 308 

relation of weight to feed con- 
sumed and rate of gain, 296 
Plains Region, grasses of, 91 
Plants, composition, 6 
Poisonous plants, 127 
Poly-saccharides, 14 
Potatoes, 137 

dried, 137 
Preparation of feeds, influence on 

digestibility, 67 
Prolamins, 10 
Proprietary feeds, 210 
Protein, 8 

chemical energy in, 45 

determination, 16 

influence on digestibility, 69 
Proteins, conjugated, 10 

derived, 10 

modified, 10 

simple, 9 
Proteose, 10 
Pumpkins, 141 

Ram, feeding of, 323 

Range and desert plants, 145 

cattle, feeding of, 273 

forage plants, composition of, 
145 

sheep, fattening of, at di Heron t. 
ages, 325 
Rape, 138 
Nations, calculation of, 70 

for beef cattle, 253 

for dairy cows, 248 

for fattening sheep, 332 

for work horses, 290 
Red clover, 117 
Red-dog flour, 181 



INDEX 



361 



Red-top, 101 

Rennet stomachs, 217 

Respiration apparatus, 43 

calorimeter, 47 
Rice, 174 

bran, 187 

by-products, 18G 

composition, 18G 

hulls, 180 

test for, 187 

meal, 186 

polish, 186 
Ricin, 9 
Rocky Mountain States, grasses of, 

91 
Rolling feeds, influence on digesti- 
bility, 67 
Root crops, 131 
Roots, value of, 132 

and silage, relative yields, 131 

and tubers, 131 

for horses, 286 
Roughage for calves, 221 

for dairy cows, 245 

for dairv heifer, 243 

for horses, 283 
Ruminants, 26 
Rutabaga, 135 
Rye, 169 

feeds, 183 

Sage brush, 145 
Saliva, 28 

Salt, common, importance of, 24 
for calves, 222 
for dairy cows, 24 
for goats, 334 
bush, 145 

bushes, digestibility of, 145 
need of, by animals, 24 
Salvage wheat, 170 
Screenings, weed seeds in, 171 
Seed, variety and quality, influence 
on chemical composition of feed- 
ing stuff's, 54 
Self-feeder for sbeep, 331 
for steers, 268 
for swine, 312 
Sheep, digestibility of hay and straw 
by, 63 
effect of fattening on carcasses 

of, 321 
fattening, composition of in- 
crease of, 321 
feeding of. 325 
rations for, 332 
feeding of, 317 



Sheep, feeding of, literature on, 335 
use of self-feeders, 331 
husbandry, advantages of, 318 
standard rations for, 317 
types of, 318 
Silage and silos, literature on, 162 
for dairy cows, 245 
for horses, 286 
for steers, 265 
crops, 155 

miscellaneous, 161 
digestion coefficients for, 68 
summer, 97 
Siloing process, changes in chemical 
composition during, 60 
influence on digestibility, 68 
Silos, advantages, 153 
and silage, 149 
cylindrical, capacity of, 150 
important points in building, 

151 
structures, 153 
types, 149 
Skim "milk, 207 

for calves, 219 
for swine, 302 
Smithfield Show, data for steer 

slaughtered at, 259 
Smooth brome grass, 102 
Soaking feed, influence on digesti- 
bility, 67 
Soft bacon, causes, 315 
Soil, influence on chemical composi- 
tion of feeding stuff's, 53 
Soiling crops, 95 

composition, 96 
for dairy cows, 244 
succession of, 97 
partial, 96 

system, advantages of, 95 
disadvantages, 96 
Sorghum, 109 

non-saccharine. 110 
second-growth, care necessarv in 

feeding, 110 
silage, 157 
Sorghums, 172 
Sow, feeding of, 306 
Soybean. 125 
meal, 202 

plant, composition of. 125 
silage, 160 
Soybeans. 175 
Speltz, 172 
Spineless cacti, 146 

literature on, 147 
Starch, 13 



362 



INDEX 



Starch, factory feeds, 190 
values, 49 

critique of, 50 
Steaming feed, influence on digesti- 
bility, 67 
Steapsin, 29 
Stearin, 11 

Steer feeding, concentrates for, 266 
literature on, 276 
pasture for, 265 
silage for, 265 
use of self-feeder, 268 
Steers, digestibility of hay and 
straw by, 63 
fattening, composition of in- 
crease, 257 
feed required for 100 pounds 
gains in winter and summer, 
264 
followed by hogs, 272 
range, feeding of, 273 
rations for, 275 
relation of age to weight and 

daily gain, 260 
two-year-old, fattening of, 271 
Stock feeds, concentrated, 212 
tonics, 212 

home-made, 213 
Stomach worms, in sheep, 324 
Storage, influence on chemical com- 
position of feeding stuffs, 61 
Stover, 129 

Straw, buckwheat, 130 
cereal, 128 
legume, 130 
millet, 130 
Succulent feeds for calves, 222 

for dairy cows, 244 
Sudan grass, 111 
Sucrose, 14 
Sugar, 14 

beets, 136 
cane, 14 

factory feeds, 192 
malt, 14 

manufacture, 192 
milk, 14 
Summer silage, 97 
Sweet cassava, 143 

potato, 143 
Swine, cooking feed, 298 
dairy products for, 302 
fattening, 309 

composition of increase, 295 
rations for, 310 



Swine, feed requirements, 294 
feeding of, 294 

for fat and for lean, 300 

literature on, 316 

self-feeders for, 312 
feeds, 210, 299 
grinding grain for, 298 
Indian corn for, 299 
pastures for, 304 
preparation of feed for, 297 
soaking feed for, 298 
standards for, 294 

Tankage, 204 
Teosinte, 112 
Therm, 45 
Timothy, 100 

region, grasses of, 90 
Tuberin, 9 
Turnips, 136 
Trypsin, 29 

Urea, 22 
Uric acid, 22 

Veal calf, the, 225 
Velvet bean, 125 
Vetches, 123 
Vicilin, 9 
Villi, 31 

Water, 6 

for calves, 222 

for goats, 334 
Watering horses, 283 
Weed seeds in feeds, 171 
Weende method, 17 
Western lambs, feeding of, 329 
Wheat, 170 

berry, anatomical structure, 179 

bran, 180 

feeds, adulterated, 181 

middlings, 181 

shorts, 181 
Whey, 208 

for swine, 303 
White middlings, 181 
Woodgum, 14 

Wolff-Lehmann standards, 37 
Wool production, 321 
Work done by horses, measurement 
of, 279 

horses, rations for, 290 

Xanthine, 22 
Xylan, 14 

Yearling steers, fattening of, 271 



